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EQUIVALENT B.P. (1932) FORMULA
Compiled and Edited by Ivor Hughes.

 

N.B. None plant drugs have been omitted.

THE following equivalent formulae have been prepared in order to be a convenience to the pharmacist when preparing quantities in Imperial weights and measures. The formula give only the proportions of the constituents and quantities to be used in the process of manufacture; for the method the pharmacist is referred to the B.P. 1932. It should be noted that the quantities given here in the Imperial system are not the equivalent of the individual quantities given in the B.P. in the metric system; therefore, whichever formula is used the quantities specified in that particular formula must be adhered to throughout.

Liquids should be measured in all cases unless the contrary is specifically indicated. It should be noted that the Imperial system is standardised at a temperature 16-7° (62°F.), at which temperature 1 mil of water weighs somewhat less than 1 gramme, therefore, in making percentage w/v solutions with Imperial weights and measures to correspond with the percentage w/v preparations of the B.P. it is necessary to take 438.47 gr. (approximately 438½ gr.) as equal to 1 oz. In the following formulae this has been the basis of calculation, but as it often leads to inconvenient fractions the figures have been rounded off for the sake of practical convenience. Where inconvenient fractions occur, it will usually be found that the nearest half grain or minim, up or down, can be reckoned.

Abbreviations: — gr. = grain; m. = minim; oz. = ounce; fl. oz. = fluid ounce; p.c. = per cent; q.s.=in sufficient quantity; w/v=weight in volume.

Acetum Scillae.— VINEGAR OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Dilute Acetic Acid ……………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Acidum Aceticum Dilutum.— DILUTE ACETIC ACID.
Acetic Acid, by weight …………….. 3 oz. 297 gr.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.

Adeps Benzoinatus.— BENZOINATED LARD.
Lard …………………………… 20 oz.
Benzoin, coarsely powdered ………… 263 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Adeps Lanae Hydrosus.—HYDROUS WOOL FAT. SYN. LANOLIN.
Wool Fat ………………………. 14 oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED DILL WATER.
Oil of Dill ……………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water ………………… -to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Destillata.— DISTILLED DILL WATER.
Dill …………………………… 2 oz.
Water………………………….. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Camphorae.— CAMPHOR WATER.
Camphor ………………………. 8 ¾ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 19 .2 m.
Distilled Water ………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED CINNAMON WATER,.
Oil of Cinnamon …………………. 192 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Destillata.— DISTILLED CINNAMON WATER.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 2 oz.
Water. …………………………. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.. 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED PEPPERMINT WATER. .
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water…………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Destillata.— DISTILLED PEPPERMINT WATER.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 9.60 m.
Water ………………………….. 30 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

Confectio Sennae.—CONFECTION OF SENNA.
Senna Leaf, in fine powder …………. 5 oz.
Coriander, in fine powder …………… 2 oz.
Figs of commerce ……………..8 oz.
Tamarind ………………………. 6 oz.
Cassia …………………………. 6 oz.
Prunes of commerce ……… 4 oz.
Extract of Liquorice …………. ¾ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 20 oz.
Distilled Water…………………..q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; boiling the figs, Tamarind, and prunes in 17½ fl. oz. of distilled water, and making the final product weigh not less than 50 oz. and not more than 55 oz.

Elixir Cascarae Sagradae.— ELIXIR OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder……. 20 oz.
Liquorice, unpeeled, in coarse powder 2½ oz.
Light Magnesium Oxide……………. 3 oz.
Soluble Saccharin ………………… 8¾ gr.
Oil of Coriander………………….. 1½ m.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 2 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 120 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Distilled Water……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; moistening the Cascara Sagrada, Liquorice and Light Magnesium Oxide with 25 fl. oz. of boiling Distilled Water, evaporating the percolate to 13 fl. oz., dissolving the Soluble Saccharin in 115 m. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Emplastrum Cantharidini.—PLASTER OF CANTHARIDIN.
SYN. CANTHARIDIN PLASTER; BLISTERING PLASTER.
Cantharidin ……………………… 17½ gr.
Acetone ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Castor Oil, by weight ………….. 4 oz.
Yellow Beeswax ……………… 8 oz.
Wool Fat ………………………. 7 oz. 421 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Cascarae Sagradae Liquidum.— LIQUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA. 
SYN. FLUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder ……. 20 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; evaporating the percolate to 12 fl. oz., adding the Alcohol previously mixed with 3 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water if necessary.

Extractum Cinchonae Liquidum.—LIQUID EXTRACT OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 10 oz. 9 ¾ gr.
Hydrochloric Acid ……………….. 288 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Extract of Cinchona with the Alcohol and 5 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum.— COMPOUND EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH.
Colocynth, crushed ……………….. 5 oz. 175 gr.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 11 oz. 87½ gr.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …….. 3 oz. 307 gr.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 2 oz. 350¾ gr.
Cardamom, in fine powder …………. 394 gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 140 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Malti cum Oleo Morrhuae.— EXTRACT OF MALT WITH COD LIVER OIL.
Extract of Malt ………………….. 18 oz.
Cod-Liver Oil, by weight……………. 2 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Aurantii Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
|Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 27 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.,1932; macerating the Orange Peel with 20 fl. oz. of the Alcohol 25 p.c., and again with 7 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Aurantii Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight…….. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Buchu Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the direction given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Buchu with Alcohol, 25 p.c., collecting and reserving 15 fl. oz., evaporating the succeeding 20 fl. oz., dissolving it in the reserved portion and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Buchu Recens. — FRESH INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Calumbae Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Calumba in 22 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, then adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Calumbae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Caryophylli Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised. ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 22 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Cloves with 12 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and again with 10 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Caryophylli Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised…………………… ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Digitalis Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF DIGITALIS. SYN. INFUSUM DIGITALIS; INFUSION OF DIGITALIS.
Powdered Digitalis, equivalent to … 43¾ gr. of International Standard Digitalis Powder. Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Concentratum.
CONCENTRATED COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 2 oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 24 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Gentian, Orange, and Lemon Peels with 20 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and a second time with 4 fl. oz.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Recens.— FRESH COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… ¼ oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… ¼ oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Quassiae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 1 oz. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Quassia with 13 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Quassiae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 87½ gr.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Senegae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 8 oz.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ……….. q.s.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senega with Alcohol, 25 p.c., reserving the first 15 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, then making faintly alkaline by addition of the Ammonia and finally adding Alcohol, 25 p.c., to make 20 fl. oz.

Infusum Senegae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Sennae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit, lightly crushed ………… 16 oz.
Strong Tincture of Ginger ……… 1 fl. oz. 288 m.
Alcohol, 20 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senna Fruit with Alcohol, 20 p.c., reserving the first 14 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, adding the strong Tincture of Ginger and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 20 p.c.

Infusum Sennae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit …………………….. 2 oz.
Ginger, sliced …………………… 43¾ gr.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Injectio Sodii Chloridi et Acaciae.— INJECTION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE AND ACACIA.
Sodium Chloride …………………. 79 gr.
Acacia, in large complete tears free from dust … 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Distilled Water. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Acacia and Sodium Chloride in 19 fl. oz. of Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Linimentum Aconiti.— LINIMENT OF ACONITE.
Aconite, in moderately coarse powder…10 oz. 9¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; exhausting the Aconite by percolation, reserving the first 15 fl. oz. of percolate, evaporating the remainder, adding it to the reserved portion, dissolving the Camphor in the mixture and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Camphorae.— LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR. SYN. CAMPHORATED OIL.
Camphor ………………… 1 oz.
Olive Oil, by weight ………………. 4 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Camphorae Ammoniatum.— AMMONIATED LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 2 oz. 221 gr.
Oil of Lavender ………………….. 48 m.
Strong Solution of Ammonia ……….. 5 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Saponis.— LINIMENT OF SOAP.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 264 gr.
Camphor ………………………. 350¾ gr.
Oil of Rosemary ……………… 144 m.
Distilled Water. …………………. 3 fl. oz. ‘192 m. ,
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Soap, Camphor and Oil of Rosemary in 12 fl, oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., adding the Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Terebinthinae.—LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 220J gr.
Camphor ………………………. 438J gr.
Oil of Turpentine ………………… 13 fl. oz.
Distilled Water.. ………………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; first mixing the Soft Soap with 2 fl. oz. of Distilled Water.

Linimentum Terebinthinae Aceticum.— ACETIC LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE. 
SYN. LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE AND ACETIC ACID.
Glacial Acetic Acid ……………….. 2 fl. oz. 96 m.
Liniment of Camphor …………….. 8 fl. oz. 432 m.
Oil of Turpentine………………. . to 20 fl. 6z.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mistura Sennae Composita.— COMPOUND MIXTURE OF SENNA. SYN. BLACK DRAUGHT.
Magnesium Sulphate………………. 5 oz. 5 gr.
Liquid Extract of Liquorice ………… 1 fl. oz.
Compound Tincture of Cardamom. …. 2 fl. oz.
Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia ………… 1 fl. oz.
Fresh Infusion of Senna …………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Magnesium Sulphate in 10 fl. oz. of the Fresh Infusion of Senna, and after adding the mixed Liquid Extract of Liquorice, Compound Tincture of Cardamom and Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, making up to 20 fl. oz. with Fresh Infusion of Senna.

Mucilago Acaciae.— MUCILAGE OF ACACIA. SYN. MUCILAGE OF GUM ACACIA.
Acacia …………………………. 8 oz.
Chloroform Water ……………….. 12 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mucilago Tragacanthae.— MUCILAGE OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 109½ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 240 m.
Chloroform Water …………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel.— OXYMEL.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel Scillae.— OXYMEL OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 1 oz.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 1 fl. oz. 384 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Squill in the Acetic Acid and Distilled Water, and to
every three volumes of the resulting preparation adding seven volumes of Purified Honey.

Pilula Aloes.— PILL OF ALOES. SYN. ALOES PILL.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……….. 1 oz.
Oil of Caraway ………………….. 50 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 151 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Aloes et Asafoetidae. — PILL OF ALOES AND ASAFETIDA.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 1½ oz.
Asafetida ………………………. 1½ oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……… 1 ½ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… ½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami.— PILL OF COLOCYNTH AND HYOSCYAMUS.
Colocynth, in fine powder ………….. 1¼ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2½ oz.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …. 2½ oz.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 306¼ gr.
Oil of Cloves ……………………. 192 m.
Dry Extract of Hyoscyamus ……. 1¼ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 1 oz. 175 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND PILL OF RHUBARB. SYN. COMPOUND RHUBARB PILL.
Rhubarb, in fine powder……………. 2½ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Myrrh …………………………. 1 oz. 175 gr.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ………….1 oz. 175 gr.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 96 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 2½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus.—AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK.
Chalk, finely powdered ……………. 6¼ oz.
Cinnamon, finely powdered …………. 2½ oz.
Nutmeg, finely powdered ………….. 2 oz.
Clove, finely powdered …………….. 1 oz.
Cardamom, finely powdered ………… ¾ oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 12½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus cum Opio.— AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK WITH OPIUM.
Aromatic Powder of Chalk …………. 9¾ oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… ¼ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Glycyrrhizae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF LIQUORICE.
Senna Leaf, finely powdered ………… 2 oz.
Liquorice, peeled, finely powdered…….. 2 oz.
Fennel, finely powdered ……………. 1 oz.
Sublimed Sulphur ……………….. 1 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 6½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii.— POWDER OF IPECACUANHA AND OPIUM. SYN. PULVIS OPII ET IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS I.A.; PULVIS IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS; COMPOUND POWDER OF IPECACUANHA; DOVER’S POWDER.
Powdered Ipecacuanha …………….. 1 oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… 1 oz.
Lactose, finely powdered ………….. 8 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Jalapae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF JALAP.
Powdered Jalap…………………… 3 oz.
Potassium Acid Tartrate, finely powdered. 6 oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Rhei Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF RHUBARB. SYN. GREGORY’S POWDER.
Rhubarb, finely powdered ………….. 2½oz.
Heavy Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Light Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Tragacanthae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 1½ oz.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Starch, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 4½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Cajuputi.— SPIRIT OF CAJUPUT.
Oil of Cajuput …………………… 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Camphorae.— SPIRIT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………..to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Menthae Piperatae.—SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT. SYN. ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus.— SYRUP.
Sucrose …………….. 13 oz. 148¾ gr. or 5 pounds
Distilled Water, by weight to 20 oz. or to 7½ pounds.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Aurantii.—SYRUP OF ORANGE.
Tincture of Orange ……………….. 2½ fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

 

Syrupus Limonis.— SYRUP OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Citric Acid ……………………… 210½ gr.
Syrup ………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Lemon Peel in 1 fl. oz. 192 m. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., pressing, filtering, and making up the filtrate to 2 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c., as directed; dissolving the Citric Acid in the liquid and adding Syrup to produce 20 fl. oz.

Syrupus Pruni Serotinae.—SYRUP OF WILD CHERRY. SYN. SYRUPUS PRUNI VIRGINIANAE; SYRUP OF VIRGINIAN PRUNE.
Wild Cherry Bark, in moderately coarse powder … 3 oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Glycerin ………………………. 1 fl. oz.
Distilled Water …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Glycerin with 4 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, moistening the Wild Cherry Bark with 2 fl. oz. of the mixture, percolating as directed onto the Sucrose so as to obtain 20 fl. oz. of finished Syrup of Wild Cherry.

Syrupus Scillae.— SYRUP OF SQUILL.
Vinegar of Squill ………….. 9 fl. oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Distilled Water ………………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Sennae.— SYRUP OF SENNA.
Liquid Extract of Senna … 5 fl. oz.
Oil of Coriander………………..14½ m.
Sucrose ………………………… 14 oz.
Distilled Water…………….to 20 fl, oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Oil of Coriander with the Liquid Extract of Senna, adding 6 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, making up the filtrate to 11 fl. oz. with Distilled Water, and after dissolving the Sucrose making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Syrupus Tolutanus.— SYRUP OF TOLU. SYN. SYRUP OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 13½ oz.
Distilled Water………………… to 20 oz. by weight.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; adding 8 fl. oz. of Distilled Water to the Balsam of Tolu, boiling and adjusting the weight as directed to 71 oz., filtering and dissolving the Sucrose in the filtrate, finally adding Distilled Water to produce 20 oz. by weight.

Syrupus Zingiberis.— SYRUP OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …… 1 fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Asafoetidae.— TINCTURE OF ASAFETIDA.
Asafetida, bruised ………………… 4 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Asafetida with 15 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Aurantii.— TINCTURE OF ORANGE.
Fresh Bitter-Orange Peel, in thin slices … 5 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Benzoini Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BENZOIN. SYN. FRIAR’S BALSAM.
Benzoin, crushed …………………2 oz.
Storax …………………………. 1½ oz.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½oz.
Aloes ………………………….. 175 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Benzoin, Storax, Balsam of Tolu, and Aloes, with 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Tinctura Calumbae.— TINCTURE OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tincturi Capsici.— TINCTURE OF CAPSICUM.
Capsicum, in moderately coarse powder . . 1 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cardamom! Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CARDAMOM.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder. . 122¾ gr.
Caraway, in moderately coarse powder. .. . 122¾ gr.
Cinnamon, in moderately coarse powder . . 245½ gr.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 61½ gr.
Glycerin ……………………….. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; producing 18 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Catechu.— TINCTURE OF CATECHU.
Catechu, crushed ………………… 4 oz.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932: by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cinchonas.— TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Cinchonas Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 1 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. 1 oz.
Serpentary, in moderately fine powder. …. 4 oz.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . .26 gr.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Bitter-Orange Peel, Serpentary, and Cochineal with 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., dissolving the Extract of Cinchona in the resulting liquid, and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Cocci.— TINCTURE OF COCHINEAL.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Digitalis.— TINCTURE OF DIGITALIS.
Method 2. Preparation from Powdered Digitalis (Digitalis Pulverata). Powdered Digitalis, a quantity containing the equivalent of 438 – 47 grains of the international standard digitalis powder.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Gentianae Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, cut small and bruised……….. 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. ¾ oz.
Cardamom, bruised ………………. ¼ oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Ipecacuanhae.— TINCTURE OF IPECACUANHA.
Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha ………. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Alcohol, 90 p.c., with the Glycerin and 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, adding the Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha and sufficient Distilled Water to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Krameriae.— TINCTURE OF KRAMERIA.
Krameria, in moderately coarse powder . . 4 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Limonis.— TINCTURE OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 5 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c…………………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Lobeliae Aetherea.— ETHEREAL TINCTURE OF LOBELIA.
Lobelia, in moderately coarse powder …. 4 oz.
Spirit of Ether …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; collecting 15 fl. oz. of percolate, pressing the marc and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Spirit of Ether.

Tinctura Myrrh.— TINCTURE OF MYRRH.
Myrrh, crushed ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Myrrh in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c., as directed.

Tinctura Nucis Vomicae.— TINCTURE OF NUX VOMICA.
Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica …1 fl. oz. 320½ m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 10 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Opii Camphorata.— CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM. SYN. TINCTURA OPII BENZOICA I.A.; TINCTURE CAMPHORAE COMPOSITA: COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR: PAREGORIC.
Tincture of Opium ……………….. 1 fl. oz.
Benzoic Acid ……………………. 43¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 26⅓ gr.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 28¾ m.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Benzoic Acid, Camphor, and Oil of Anise, in 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., adding the Tincture of Opium and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c.

Tinctura Quassiae.— TINCTURE OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Quillaiae.— TINCTURE OF QUILLAIA.
Quillaiae, in moderately coarse powder …. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF RHUBARB.
Rhubarb, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder . ½ oz.
Coriander, in moderately coarse powder .. ½ oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; preparing 17 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol, 60 p.c. to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Scillae.— TINCTURE OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.
Tinctura Senega.— TINCTURE OF SENEGA.
Liquid Extract of Senega …………… 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Tolutana.— TINCTURE OF TOLU. SYN. TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Balsam of Tolu in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally adding sufficient Alcohol, 90 p.c. to make 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata.— AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN.
Valerian, in moderately coarse powder…..4 oz.
Oil of Nutmeg …………………… 28¾ m.
Oil of Lemon ……………………. 19¼ m.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 18 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Fortis.— STRONG TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. ESSENCE OF GINGER.
Ginger, in moderately coarse powder …. 10 oz.
Alcohol 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Mitis.— WEAK TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS; TINCTURE OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …………. 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

TROCHISCI.  Lozenge Basis of the General Process.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 35 oz. 120 gr.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz. 205 gr.
Tincture of Tolu …………………. 338 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. q.s.
To be prepared and used in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932, in the preparation of 1,000 lozenges.

Trochiscus Krameriae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA. 
SYN. KRAMERIA LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1000 Lozenges.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Trochiscus Krameriae et Cocainae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA AND COCAINE. SYN. KRAMERIA AND COCAINE LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Cocaine Hydrochloride ……………. 46¼ gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1,000 Lozenges. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Aquosum.— HYDROUS OINTMENT.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 2 fl. oz. 192 m.
Borax …………………………. 43¾ gr.
White Beeswax ………………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
White Soft Paraffin ……………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
Olive Oil ………………………. 5 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Capsici.— OINTMENT OF CAPSICUM. SYN. CAPSICUM OINTMENT.
Capsicum, bruised ……………….. 2½ oz.
Lard …………………………… 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin …………………… 1 oz.
Yellow Soft Paraffin ………………. 7½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Simplex.— SIMPLE OINTMENT,
Wool Fat ………………………. 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin ……………………. 2 oz.
White Soft Paraffin or Yellow Soft Paraffin 17 oz. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Library

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Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 3.
DEHYDRATION

Introduction 3.1
Dehydration as an art is very old, the origins of which are lost in time. As a science, it is relatively young, being little more than 100 years old.

As a process, it is fundamental to most herb growing operations.

The drying phase is the point at which an otherwise satisfactory crop may be ruined; or its economic value considerably reduced, and yet it is the one process which is most often botched with some quite appalling materials appearing in the market place. Herbs intended as medicinal extracts will almost certainly fail in terms of efficacy and metabolite levels. There are many ways in which plant material may be dried. Small quantities may be prepared for domestic use, from domestic resources. This by time honoured methods, such as bunching and hanging in a warm dark place that has suitable ventilation.

The Benefits of Dehydration 3.2
The ownership of a dehydrator confers upon the herb grower a degree of market flexibility which is unmatched by any other branch of horticulture. Some of the benefits are as follows;

The crop is stabilised and may be stored for up to nine months.

There is no necessity to sell the crop onto a glutted market.

The bulk fresh crop is reduced, with good savings on transport.

The crop is greatly increased in value.

The marketing options are considerably expanded.

The Aim of Dehydration 3.3
Good dehydration practice seeks to preserve the herb metabolites in as near to their natural state as possible. Therefore, the water content of the material must be quickly and efficiently reduced to a level where bio chemical reactions cease and micro-organisms are unable to function. The temperatures employed must be so regulated that the metabolite and cosmetic integrity of the material is not damaged. Therefore, the grower must not only have knowledge of dehydration theory and the apparatus employed; but must also understand the characteristics of the material upon which they work.

The Living Herb 3.4
As living entities, herbs are incredibly complex. A single cell, with the addition of a few basic elements, can manufacture in seconds, a dazzling array of intricate compounds; even one of which could take a modern research laboratory many months of painstaking work to reproduce, if indeed they could be reproduced at all. It is well that we remember, that the chemical expertise demonstrated by a single blade of grass is, as yet beyond our knowledge.

There are an estimated 500,000 higher plant species; of which a mere 5% have been screened for bio-active substances. The terminology can be misleading because the screening usually involved a search for a single so called ‘active principle’, such as alkaloids or glycosides which of course scientifically speaking is woefully inadequate given the complexity of a single plant.

Very few of our medicinal plants have been subjected to an in-depth analysis, so it is possible that the baby has already been thrown out with the scientific bath water.

Ginger root contains a volatile oil that represents around 0.5 to 2.5% of its mass. To date well over 80 compounds have been isolated from the oil alone.

The common herb Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), which is found throughout the temperate zones of the world, has yielded so far well in excess of a 100 secondary compounds.

Photosynthesis 3.5

The human brain, so frail, so perishable,so full of inexhaustible dreams and hungers
burns by the power of a leaf.
Loren Eiseley. PhD

The word ‘photosynthesis’, means literally, ‘made from light’ By that ultimate transmutation the green plant may be seen as the servant planetary alchemist. The green plant alone has mastered the secret of the transmutation of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into food. All life forms are dependant on the power of the leaf.

There are certain kinds of bacteria that are classed as autotrophs i.e. able to synthesize food from inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulphide; however the hydrogen sulphide which is used instead of water, is produced from the breakdown of green plant protein by sulphide bacteria, so they too are dependent on the green plant for life.

Primary and Secondary Compounds 3.6
Primary compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are to be found in all living organisms, whereas the natural distribution of the secondary compounds such as alkaloids and glycosides etc, is more sporadic, however, the secondary compounds are produced in great variety by the green plants. Several thousand of them have been identified, what is surprising is, that they have been synthesised from just 6 major chemical groups.

Science is unable to supply any clear cut answer as to the purpose of the secondary compounds nonetheless they are of vital importance to our well being and health, in that they are able to elicit all known pharmacological responses.

Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 2.

The Harvest Schedules.

Introduction.
The harvest is now a measure of economic productivity, Lines of hieroglyphs that tell a story for the taxman. Pity those that get caught on the banker or chemical company treadmill. For they cannot see the natural alchemy of which they are a part. Our kind has been fecund. It may have been that very fecundity that finally forced the greater part of the nomads into settled lifestyles, and the shaman to change his face, as the Earth moves around the Sun.

The new born agriculture was a momentous leap of intellectual vigour, stimulated by survival instinct. So much to be done. Calendars to be constructed, Pyramids, Ziggurats and Henge’s to be erected, great terraces and earthworks cut. Vast stone instruments, to predict the passage of the chariots of the Gods. Even more intriguing, portable moon calendars carved in bone, and star maps imaged with shells, on a wooden lattice. They knew the world was round. A roundness of cycles into infinity.

No settled community is possible without a calendar to mark out the progression of the seasons. Harvest home was always a time of festivity and feasting, and always sanctified by tribute to the ruling Deity. The people knew that they would survive until the saving onset of Spring. Because they were so close to Nature, they understood that they were dependent, on forces beyond their control. Nothing has changed. A loaded trolley at the supermarket. Nothing has changed. We are still dependent on forces beyond our control. Even the most powerful must kneel. They may be last to kneel, but kneel they must.

Spring is born from the metamorphosis of Autumn and Winter. Autumn is born of the metamorphosis of Spring and Summer. Endless seasons spinning out like a line from the Zodiac spool.

Harvesting and Dehydration Schedules 2.1
Harvesting is carried out when a crop is at peak condition for the purpose of which it is required and as such it is usually a straight forward operation. However herb growers must work within the parameters set by their processing capacity. The capacity is set by the ability to dry and stabilise the crops when they are in peak condition.

Under capacity will result in considerable loss, therefore to avoid complications careful planning is necessary. To determine the dehydration capacity required the grower must set the area to be cultivated and estimate the probable yields of the herbs to be planted. This may be calculated from the data given in part 2. The grower must then know the approximate flowering times of the herbs in order to allocate dehydration time as each specie comes on stream. There are a number of variables that affect the flowering times for different plants.

Climatic Factors 2.2
Climate is the weather pattern for a specific location that will repeat itself season after season. The climate is composed of the following variables;

Temperature range.

Rainfall, the amount and frequency.

The level of humidity.

The duration and intensity of light.

Wind speed and direction.

The variables given are determined in their turn by the following;

Latitude. Longitude.

Altitude. Proximity to the coast

Overall land mass. Natural vegetation.

It is possible within reason to create micro-climates by means of technology or naturally by employing Perma-Culture techniques. (Bill Mollison)

Temperature 2.3
The temperature determines the rate of chemical reaction within living protoplasm. Many herbs of commerce are able to cope with a widely fluctuating range of temperatures. Specific temperature requirements will vary markedly under different growing conditions such as rainfall and duration and intensity of light.

Light Intensity and Duration 2.4
The amount and intensity of light available to a plant is determined by latitude that is then modified by season, cloud cover, atmospheric pollution and the time of day. Most herbs of commerce require a medium to high light intensity.

Light duration or day length varies according to latitude. Table 2.4A indicates day length at various latitudes North and South of the equator.

Table 2.4A

Latitude	Day length	Effect
0°	12 Hours	Short day, long growing period
5°	11.6 to 12.2	Short day, long growing period
10°	11.3 to 12.5	Short day, long growing period
15°	11.0 to 12.8	Short day, long growing period
20°	10.7 to 13.1	Short day, long growing period
25°	10.3 to 13.4	Short day, long growing period
30°	9.9 to 13.8	Short day, long growing period
35°	9.5 to 14.2	Long day, short growing period
40°	9.0 to 14.7	Long day, short growing period

Many plants are so sensitive to day length that they may be induced to flower by manipulating the hours of light and dark to which they are exposed. This phenomenon is called photoperiodism.

Therefore plants may be classified according to their reaction ie. Day Neutral, Day Short or Day Long. In fact it is the hours of darkness that are critical for the flowering of short or day long plants.

Water Requirements 2.5
As a rule of thumb herbs will need less water than vegetable crops and usually exhibit good resistance to drought conditions, however to realise their potential, they will need water at regular intervals.

In areas of uncertain rainfall during the growing season it may be necessary to resort to irrigation. In such cases the grower should be prepared to deliver an average of 18mm of water per fortnight. That is equivalent to 180,000 litres or 180 cubic metres per hectare. That equates to 16,023 imperial gallons or 19,242 U.S. gallons per acre.

The amount of water actually delivered must be based on the growers own judgement. The herbs should be given water when seen to be necessary, ie at planting and thereafter to maintain growth. Irrigation once commenced should be continued at regular intervals unless rain intervenes. Herbs as a rule require far less water than our food crops.

The amount of water given should be tapered off around 4 to 5 weeks before harvest; this conditions the herb and promotes favourable dehydration.

The most water critical period is within 3 weeks of planting. Undue water stress during that time will give rise to weak and stunted plants.

Wind Shelter 2.6
Wind speeds high enough to cause visible physical damage are the exception rather than the rule. Moderate prevailing winds are equally damaging but much more insidious, culminating in a significant loss of yield due to stunting of growth.

Prevailing winds lower the ambient temperature and humidity levels which in turn facilitates the stripping of moisture from the soil and plant. The immediate effect is wind chill; the evaporation of moisture causes a quick drop in the temperature of the plant and surrounding soil, which if prolonged, will lead to water stress. These sudden fluctuations are not conducive to the thrift and health of the plant therefore wind shelter should be considered mandatory.

Latitude, Longitude and Altitude 2.7
Taken individually or in combination, latitude, longitude and altitude have a direct bearing on climate, and as such, strongly influence flowering times.

1° (degree) of latitude equals 109 km approximately.

1° (degree) of longitude equals 111 km approximately.

The equator is 0° of latitude.

For each degree of latitude North or South of the equator, flowering is retarded by 4 days.

From East to West each 5° of longitude will advance flowering by 4 days

For each rise of 125 metres above sea level flowering will be retarded by 4 days.

Table 2.7A will enable you to arrive at a reasonable estimate of flowering times for your area.

 

Harvesting for Quality 2.8
Over the past few decades many of the plants, which are of commercial importance to the pharmaceutical and flavouring industries, have undergone scientific scrutiny to determine optimal harvesting times for particular end use requirements.

Predictably investigations have confirmed that the levels and composition of secondary metabolites are subject to seasonal variations of climate, nutrients and the maturity of the plant. It is reassuring to note that the scientific findings validate many centuries of empirical knowledge.

It may be seen in table 2.7A that considerable latitude is shown for the harvesting of the species listed. This is accounted for by the plant part required, and also the habit of the regrowth displayed by plants harvested for shoots or flowering tops, where 2 or 3 cuts may be taken in a season.

Harvesting the Root 2.9
Autumn and early spring are the times designated for the harvesting of medicinal roots. By early or late autumn most herbs will have completed their seasonal cycle and against a background of falling air and soil temperatures the root commences to transfer residual materials from leaf and stem. The materials are stored by the root and then used to fuel spring growth.

As the transfer proceeds the aerial part of the plant commences to die back. When the die back is complete the metabolism slows down and the root enters a dormant phase. Roots specified for autumn collection are harvested at the end of the second season, that allows the root or tuber to properly develop.

Roots designated for spring harvest are dug at the commencement of the third season. Unless a buyer specifies otherwise the root must be dug before it breaks dormancy otherwise the ensuing enzyme activity will materially alter the composition and levels of the secondary metabolites.

Harvesting the Leaf 2.10
Leaf only drug plants are usually alkaloid or glycoside producers with a potent and potentially lethal effect on heart, lungs or central nervous system. They are listed in most National Poison Schedules and hedged about by restrictions. Before cultivating such plants it would be prudent to consult with the appropriate authorities.

Most national pharmacopoeias and dispensatories contain detailed monographs of such plants and will usually specify the collection time. The individual leaves are collected by hand at their maximum point of growth. That point may be taken as the first indication of bud form. Buds and flowers are modified leaves, when the first modification is noted, harvesting should commence. The leaves should be collected when the dew has dried and taken from the bottom up, ignoring any damaged basal or immature leaves.

Individual leaves are laid flat on trays or baskets. Care must be taken to ensure that ferment heating does not occur.

Harvesting the Whole Herb above ground 2.11
The harvesting of whole herb is the rule rather than the exception for extraction purposes. The required metabolites are generally distributed throughout the plant. In line with the timing for leaves, the herb is taken just on bud break at it’s maximum point of growth.

There are some few exceptions, i.e. Atropa belladonna is sometimes harvested when in first fruit, or Henbane and Thorn Apple, which are harvested when in flower. Such variations are usually the subject of monographs in a pharmacopoeia.

Plants should be cut just above the woody part of the stem. Upon harvesting the herb should be quickly transported to the processing area so that undue chemical changes are avoided. Large quantities of fresh cut herb bruise and sweat easily and will speedily succumb to ferment heating.

Harvesting the Flower 2.12
The harvesting of flowers should commence on a dry day when the dew has dried. The flower should be picked when fully open but not blown. Damaged or blown blooms should be discarded. Most flower petals are 90% water, very delicate and easily bruised, such damage results in oxidation and ferment problems causing discolouration and loss of volatile principles. If petals only are required it will be more convenient and result in less damage if the petals are removed from the calyx after they have undergone drying.

Harvesting the Seed 2.13
Harvesting the of seed crops closely follows that of the food grain crops. The herb is cut when the seed is just on ripe i.e. at the first colour change from green. The herb is bundled and arranged in shocks and allowed to sun dry and ripen. It is then threshed and winnowed.

Harvesting the Bark 2.14
Bark is usually harvested in the spring when the sap-run is fresh and strong. It is detrimental to the health of a tree to remove bark from the trunk. The best procedure is to remove a suitably sized branch and strip the bark from that. Take care to paint the wound on the tree with a preparation of a natural resin or wax to seal out pathogens. Take the branch from the tree sun side. Sunlight inhibits fungal growth.

Harvesting of non standard parts 2.15
Certain types of herbal preparations require that they be manufactured from the whole plant at a specific stage of growth e.g. root, leaf and flower, in which case the whole plant should be harvested in line with the directions given in Para 2.12. If the requirements are for root, leaf and fruit, then the herb should be harvested when the berries are just on ripe.

Post Harvest Procedures 2.16
At the point of harvest far reaching changes are set in motion; the living herb starts to die. Bio-chemical reactions such as autolysis commence. The cellular breakdown is closely followed by invasion of micro-organisms. This intense chemical activity unless checked will render the herbal material useless for medical purposes, or as is more usual, the potency and efficiency of the herb is badly compromised. Therefore post harvest procedures must be swift and efficient. Enzyme activity can only occur in the presence of water, the sooner the material is subjected to the drying process the better. There are some exceptions to this general rule, those exceptions in the main are comprised of beverages and flavourings such as tea, cocoa beans, vanilla pods; or industrial ware such as woad; perfumery items like orris and the recreational drug nicotine. The two major exceptions for materials that are used medicinally are lavender and gentian root.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Root 2.17
Medicinal roots are harvested in the same manner as that applied to the food root crops. Care should be taken to ensure that the roots are not unduly bruised or damaged in the process. The root once dug must be separated form the soil and other adhering matter. The method used will depend upon soil type.

Light sandy soils can usually be removed by light brushing or agitation and sifting whereas heavier soils will need to be removed by the mechanical action of water. Modern methods involve the use of revolving drums and high pressure water sprays. Traditional methods included immersion in water troughs prior to brushing and rinsing or the roots were packed into sacks and suspended in a running creek or steam.

Once the root is clean hair roots and damaged parts must be trimmed off and any diseased or wormy roots disposed of. If the end use requires that the root be scraped then it should be done at this stage. With a few exception, whole roots are rarely encountered in commerce. The reasons are technically based; whole roots are notoriously difficult to dry in a satisfactory manner; they require a long and therefore deleterious drying time producing unwanted bio-chemical reactions which are accelerated by mechanical reactions such as root splitting and case hardening. Those problems may be eliminated by chopping, slicing or dicing the root prior to dehydration. The loading trays should be held ready for use and then moved to the dehydrator with all possible speed.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Leaf 2.18
Leaves must be carefully examined for the following;

Insect damage. Insect eggs or infestation. Bird excreta. Disease or fungal infection. Tissue damage.
Damaged or contaminated leaves should be discarded. The undersides of bottom leaves may be flecked with mud, splatter from heavy rain. Do not attempt to clean the leaves while they are in the fresh state, dry the leaves first and the mud may be easily removed by sieving. Leaves for drying should be threaded on string or thin rods. If they are to be dried on trays then they should be laid flat in a single layer, otherwise blackening will occur during the process.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Whole Herb 2.19
Each plant should be examined for damage or contamination as listed in Para 2.18. Any damaged material should be removed from the plant and disposed of. The initial inspection must be thorough, damaged material will considerably lower the crop value, whilst insect eggs can lead to infestation problems during storage

When the crop has been cleaned it should be cut or chopped into 2.5cm pieces. This ensures easy tray loading and even drying and the simplification of subsequent processing procedures. The drying trays may be loaded to a depth of 5cm.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Flower 2.20
Flowers should be scrutinised for insects, caterpillars and eggs. If this procedure is skimped then infestation during storage is the inevitable result. Rose and Calendula flowers being particularly prone. It is always best to remove petals from the Calyx after dehydration. This may be done by rubbing and sifting the material across a suitable screen.

Post Harvest Procedures. General Points 2.21
Observation will demonstrate that the herbs cycle of growth is closely related to the lunar cycle, and that the major biological surges occur on or around the full moon. The full moon is used as a harvesting marker. For reasons both economic, and scale of operation, it is not practical to process a complete crop in one dehydration run. Therefore the grower must accept a quality trade off in order to extend the harvesting period.

A good quality crop may be obtained by working to a seven day cycle, i.e. harvesting may commence 3 days before a full moon and terminate 3 days after. Obviously such considerations do not apply to root crops which are harvested in the dormant phase.

Provision of Drying Surface 2.22
A major factor affecting dehydration capacity is the area and type of drying surface available. Fixed drying surfaces such as shelves or racks are a serious drain on time and labour and add considerably to damage and leaf shatter when a crop is handled. The use of portable drying trays will eliminate the problems. A 1 metre x 1 metre tray allows for speedy manipulation at the load and unload points. If it becomes necessary to turn the herb to dry wet spots then that may be done by placing an empty tray on top of a loaded one and then turning the trays over. The savings in labour unit hours across one season are considerable.

A 1 metre x 1 metre drying tray will hold on average;

Chopped Herb – 2 to 3 kg. Chopped Root – 3 to 4 kg. Flowers or Petals – 0.5 to1.5 kg.

With experience, an operator can accurately load by sight and compensate for dehydrator quirks.

The Dehydration Schedule 2.23
The growers dehydration capacity must bear some relationship to the area under cultivation if economic loss is to be avoided. That relationship may be determined by compiling a dehydration schedule. As a planning tool it will allow the grower to forecast the following information.
When the dehydrator is in use and for how long. Peak loading times and potential bottlenecks. The amount of drying surface required for the crop.

Once the type of crop and size of cultivation has been decided then the schedule should be compiled. The schedule can be designed to yield greater or lesser data according to need.

The following example table is based on a 1 hectare cultivation laid out to 5 species on an equal land basis, ie 2000m² per specie.

Table 2.23A

 

Key to columns	Data source	Key to column A
[A] Plant part required	Table 2.7A	[2] Whole Herb
[B] Fresh yield 2000m²	Extrapolated Table 1.2B	[3] Root
[C] Drying surface as m²	Extrapolated Para 2.22	[4] Flower
[D] Drying ratio	Table 1.2A	***
[E] Dry yield	Table 1.2B	***

N.B. It may be seen from the table that there are overlaps in the harvesting periods, with peak demand in mid summer. The amount of drying surface required is divided across a 7 day period with two or three dehydration runs per 24 hours.

For example let us take the data shown in the table, as it relates to Lemon Balm.

Column A. Whole Herb.

Column B. Fresh Yield. …………….. 2040 Kg.

From Para 2.22 it will be seen that a 1 x 1 metre drying tray will hold between 2 and 3 Kg. Average 2.5 Kg.

Therefore 2040 Kg ÷ by 2.5 Kg = 816 metre² of drying surface required.

816 metre² ÷ by 7 days = 116.57 metre² of drying surface to be provided on a daily basis, to dehydrate the crop.

Chapter 3

Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

© Herbdata NZ Ltd.

 

Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 4 Part 2

The Measure of Things 4.15
Measurements are fundamental to every sphere of human activity. By measure of the greatest to the smallest, we may see the symmetry of things and their relationship to each other irrespective of scale.

Standing at the kerbside, the eye measures, at the brains command; converging vehicle speed, height of kerb to roadside, speed required to cross safely. Go or stay. Multiple calculations of measure at the speed of light. No margin of error, a mistake could be terminal.

In a supermarket aisle reaching for a packet, or scaling a mountain , multiple internal measures, without which, we could not function at the level of complexity required of the human condition.

Our internal measures are unique, as we as individuals are. Moreover our scales of measurement must cope with the exigency of gestation to old age. Quite clearly measurement and number are the first requirement of a civilisation, if it is to function as a higher organism within the whole. A standard measure is created and adhered to. In this way we may refer to a ‘head of state or the ‘military arm’ when speaking of these complex higher organisms of State which are only made possible by number and measure.

There are many different systems of measurement in use throughout the world, with each one having its own standard, the standard being a specific measure to which other things are compared. It will be appreciated that conversion tables, although necessary, are time consuming, cumbersome and prone to user error. In the context of chemistry, medicine or pharmacy, an error could have tragic consequences. Teach yourself the Metric System.

 

The rapid global expansion of science and technology meant that a coherent global system of units was not only desirable, but very necessary. From 10 fingers and 10 toes, it is not a great intellectual leap to one of our earliest counting machines, the ‘Abacus’ which still finds widespread use in the West for the teaching of place and number in units of 1 to 10.

The Metric System 4.16
The metric or decimal system has a number base of 10. The conversion of related units is convenient because only the decimal point is moved either left or right as the units change.

A coherent metric system was first proposed in Lyon, France around 1690. Just over 100 years later the system was standardised by the Paris Academy of Sciences, and was finally legalised in 1801. Since that time it has undergone various revisions, which are carried out by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

We are able to make sense of very large numbers by the use of Powers, Prefix and symbol. For example, a metric billion means 1000 000 000 000 (1 million, million). We may write that number by the use of Power. A billion has 12 zero,s and is written 10¹² . One million (1000 000) has 6 zero,s and is written 10⁶. We operate in the same way when dealing with very small numbers, except the decimal point moves to the left and is designated as the negative power and is indicated by a negative sign. E.g. 1 millionth part of (0.000 001) is written 10^-6

Powers of 10. Table 4.16A

Symbol	Number	Prefix	Meaning	Power
M	1000 000	mega	million	106
k	1000	Kilo	thousand	10³
h	100	hecto	hundred	10²
da	10	decca	ten	10¹
d	0.1	deci	tenth	10-1
c	0.01	centi	hundredth	10-2
m	0.001	milli	thousandth	10-3
µ	0.000 001	micro	millionth	10-6

Number, Power and Indices 4.17
If a number is multiplied by itself, it has been raised to the power of 2, (for example 3 x 3) and may be written as 3², or if it is raised to the power of 3, (eg. 3 x 3 x 3), it may be written 3³ The small number to the right of the of the main number is called the ‘power’ or ‘index’ which states the number of times that a number must be multiplied by itself.

If a number is raised to the power of 2, it is said to be ‘squared’, eg., the area of a house or land is 10 square metres, it can be written as 10² or 10 metre² .

If a number is raised to the power of 3, it is said to be ‘cubed’ eg, the volume occupied by a house is 50 cubic metres, and written, 50³ or 50 metre³

Negative Power or Index 4.18
The negative power indicates how many times a given number must be divided into unity or 1.

Example 3^-3 means 1 ÷ 3 ÷ 3 ÷ 3, which equals 0.037;

Another example, 10^-3 means 1 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 = 0.001.

It may be seen that with negative powers, the decimal point moves to the left of the conversion factor, by the number of places indicated by the index, or power number.

Multiplying by Power 4.19
The same principle applies when multiplying by powers, except the decimal point moves to the right. A comprehensive set of conversion tables will be given, however be warned that the universal scientific notation is metric based. Learn the Metric System!

The International System of Units 4.20
Since 1960 the metric system has been undergoing a gradual refinement of the units used, with the aim of securing uniformity. The new system is called the International System of Units, which is usually abbreviated to S.I. Units.

The importance of the S.I. System cannot be overstated because we can communicate core concepts of any activity in precision language. For the population at large, and for all practical purposes, we can consider the Metric and S.I. systems as identical.

Physical and Base Quantities 4.21

I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers,
you know something about it; but when you cannotexpress it in numbers, your knowledge of it is
of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely,
in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science, in whatever the matter may be.
William Thomson, 1st Baron, Lord Kelvin.

Lord Kelvin was a British Physicist, who amongst other things formulated the second law of thermodynamics in 1850. He also introduced an absolute temperature scale, the units of which were named the Kelvin.

The S.I. Units can be described as universal currency of concepts, in which inflation or devaluation are not allowed, unless by international agreement. The base unit must accord with whatever is being counted or measured, for instance; give me 100 dollars worth of apples is meaningless, in the context of the number of apples that are purchased.

If, however, $100 will buy 50 kilogram of apples, we then know something about the mass of apples, but nothing about the mass of a single apple. The kilogram is the base unit for mass, therefore, the mass of an individual apple would be a sub-multiple of the kilo-gram, and would be expressed as ‘x’ number of grams.

There are currently 7 base quantities which are defined by the S.I.System. 

Table 4.21A Base Quantities and Units

Base Quantity	Unit Name	Unit Symbol
Length	metre	m
Mass	kilogram	kg
Thermodynamic Temperature	Kelvin	K
Time	second	s
Electric Current	ampere	A
Luminous Intensity	candela	cd
Amount of Substance	mole	mol

If we wish to know the volume of the mass, then it would be necessary to use a different base unit, in this case the metre ³ ; the volume would then be expressed as a sub multiple of the metre, i.e. centimetres or millimetres cubed. Such units are known as derived units.

Table 4.21B. Selected Derived Units S.I. System.

Physical Quantity	Derived Unit	Symbol
Area	square metre	m2
Volume	cubic metre	m3
Density (mass)	kilogram /cubic metre	kg/m3
Velocity	metre per second	m/s
Pressure	Pascal	Pa
Thermal Conductivity	watt per metre degree Kelvin	w/ (m-K )
Concentration	mole per cubic metre	mol/m3
Energy, Heat Quantity	Joule	J
Power, Radiant Flux	Watt	W
Heat Flux Density	Watt per square metre	W/m2
Specific Heat Capacity	Joule per kg Kelvin	J/kg/K

N.B. A Pascal = Newton /metre ³

Conversion Factors 4.22
The tables that follow and the values given are those of the International System of Units. (S.I.)

Table 4.22A

Length	cm	metre	km	in	ft	mile
1 centimetre	1	10 -2	10 -5	0.3937	3.281 x 10 -2	6.214 x 10 -6
1 metre	100	1	10 -3	39.37	3.281	6.214 x 10 -4
1 kilometre	10 5	1000	1	3.967 x 104	3281	0.6214
1 inch	2.540	0.3937	3.937 x 104	1	8.333 x 10 -2	1.578 x 10 -5
1 foot	30.48	0.3048	3.048 x 10 4	12	1	1.894 x 10 -4
1 statute    mile	1.609 x 10 5	1609	1.609	6.336 x 104	5280	1

Table 4.22B

Area	metre²	cm²	ft²	in²
1 square metre	10-2	0.3937	3.281 x 10-2	6.214 x 10-2
1 square centimetre	10-4	1	1.076 x 10-3	0.1550
1 square foot	9.290 x 10-4	929.0	1	144
1 square inch	6.452 x 10-4	6.452	6.944 x 10-3	1

Table 4.22C

Volume	metre 3	cm³	litre	Ft ³	in³
1 cubic metre	1	10 6	1000	35.31	6.102 x 10 4
1 centimetre ³	10 -6	1	1.000 x 10-3	3.531 x 10-5	6.102 x 10-2
1 litre	1.000 x 10-3	1000	1	3.531 x 10 -2	61.02
1 cubic foot	2.832 x 10 -2	2.832 x 10 4	28.32	1	1728
1 cubic inch	1.639 x 10-5	16.39	1.639 x 10-2	5.787 x 10 -4	1

Table 4.22D

Speed	ft/s	km/hr	m/s	miles/hr	cm/s
1 foot per second	1	1.097	0.3048	0.6818	30.48
1 kilometre per hour	0.9113	1	0.2778	0.6214	27.78
1 metre per second	3.281	3.6	1	2.237	100
1 mile per hour	1.467	1.609	0.4470	1	44.70
1 centimetre second	3.281 x 10 G ²	3.6 x 10 G ²	0.01	2.237 x 10 G ²	1

Table 4.22E

Pressure	atm	cm Hg	Pa	lb/in ²
1 atmosphere	1	76	1.013 x 105	14.70
1 cm mercury at 0°C	1.316 x 10-2	1	1333	0.1934
1 Pascal	9.869 x 10-6	7.501 x 10-4	1	1.450 x 10-4
1 lb per inch	6.805 x 10-2	5.171	6.895 x 103	1

Table 4.22F

Power	BTU/hr	hp	Cal/s	kw	Watts
1 BTU/hr	1	3.929 x 10-4	7.000 x 10-2	2.930 x 10-4	0.2930
1 horsepower	2545	1	178.2	0.7457	745.7
1 calorie/s	14.29	5.613 x 10-3	1	4.186 x 10-3	4.186
1 kilowatt	3413	1.341	238.9	1	1000
1 Watt	3.413	1.341 x 10-3	0.2389	0.001	1

Table 4.22G

Energy	Btu	hp/hr	Joule	cal	kW/hr
1 Btu	1	3.929 x 10-4	1055	252	2.930 x 10-4
1 Horsepower	2524	1	2.685 x 106	6.414 x 105	0.7457
1 Joule	9.481 x 10-4	3.725 x 10-7	1	0.2389	2.778 x 10-7
1 Calorie	3.968 x 10-3	1.559 x 10-6	4.186	1	1.163 x 10-6
1 kilowatt hour	3413	1.341	3.6 x 106	8.601 x 105	1

Miscellaneous Factors 4.23

p or pi ,is the 16th letter of the Greek alphabet, and is used as a math symbol that denotes the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter i.e. p = 3.14159.

The diameter of a circle is a straight line from edge to edge, passing through the centre. The radius of a circle is half the diameter. The circumference is the distance around the edge of a complete circle.

Figure 4.23A

r = radius

D = diameter

C = circumference

The Area of a circle. = p r² = 3.14159 x square of radius.

Example. Assume the radius of a circle is 25cm, then the calculation is; r² = r x r = 25 x 25 = 625cm therefore, the area of the circle is 3.14159 x 625 = 1963.49cm².

The volume of a cylinder = p ² x height = p x height x r², in other words, the area of 1 end x height.

Example. The height of a drum or cylinder is 100cm, then the calculation is; Area = 1963.49 x 100 = 196349cm³.

When measuring area, 2 dimensional space is measured.

When measuring volume, 3 dimensional space is measured.

Example. The area of a rectangle is length x breadth = area. The volume of a cube is length x breadth x height.

Chapter 4 part 3

 

  Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

Library

Essential Anatomic Terms 
and Anatomic Images 
1      2      3      4      5      6      7     8

 

 
Aponeurosis: expanded tendon for the attachment of a flat muscle..   Artery (a.): a vessel carrying blood from the heart through the body.   Articulation: connection between bones.   Autonomic nervous system: for the innervation of smooth muscle, heart muscle, and glands, consisting of a craniosacral (parasympathetic) and thoracolumbar (sympathetic) portion.  
Belly: fleshy part of a muscle.   Body: broadest or longest mass of a bone.   Bone: inflexible structure composing skeleton.  
Capillary: anatomic units connecting the arterial and venous systems; minute vessels, func­tional units of the circulatory system.   Cartilage: substance from which some bone ossifies; gristle.   Cell: the structural and functional body unit.   Central nervous system (C.N.S.): the brain and spinal cord.   Condyle: polished articular surface, usually rounded.   Crest: ridge or border.  
Diaphysis: the shaft of a long cylindrical bone..  
Eminence: low convexity just perceptible.   Endocrine: internal secretion without the use of glandular ducts.     Epicondyle: elevation near and above a condyle.   Epiphyseal plate (line): growth center for elongation of bone, found between shaft and extremities of the bone.   Epiphysis: the extremity or head of a long bone.   Exocrine: secretion discharged by way of a duct system.  
Facet: small articular area, often a pit.   Fascia: fibrous envelopment of muscle structures and other tissues.   Foramen: hole, perforation.   Fossa: shallow depression.  
Ganglion: group of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system.   
Head: enlarged round end of a long bone; knob.  
Insertion: relatively movable part of a muscle attachment.  
Joint: connection between bones.  
Ligament: fibrous tissue binding bones together or holding tendons and muscles in place.   Lymph vessels: like veins but walls are thinner and valves more numerous; drain tissue spaces.  
Mesentery: a double layer of peritoneum (mesothelium), usually supporting organs.   Muscle (m.): contractile organ capable of producing movement.  
Neck: constriction of a bone near head.   Nerve (n.): a group of fibers outside the central nervous system.   Neuron: nerve cell body plus its processes.   Nucleus: group of nerve cell bodies within the central nervous system.  
Omentum: a fold of peritoneum connecting abdominal viscera with the stomach.   Organ: 2 or more tissues grouped together to perform a highly specialized function.   Origin: relatively fixed part of a muscle attachment.  
Peripheral nervous system (P.N.S.): cerebrospinal nerves and the peripheral parts of the autonomic nervous system.   Process: projection (can be grasped with fingers).   Protuberance: a swelling (can be felt under fingers).  
Ramus: plate like branch of a bone; branch of a vessel or nerve.   Ramus communicans: a nerve branch from the anterior root of a spinal nerve to the sympa­thetic chain of ganglia; white-nerve to chain; gray-chain back to spinal nerve.  
Shaft: body of a long bone.   Sheath: protective covering.   Spine: pointed projection or sharp ridge.   Suture: interlocking of teeth like edges.   Symphysis: union of right and left sides in the midline.   System: group of organs acting together to perform a highly complex but specialized function, such as nervous, skeletal, muscular, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive.   Tendon: fibrous tissue securing a muscle to its attachment.   Tissue: differentiation and specialization of groups of cells bound together to perform a special function, e.g., epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.   Trochanter: 1 or 2 processes on the upper part of the femur below neck.   Trochlea: spool-shaped articular surface.   Tubercle: small bump (can be felt under finger).   Tuberosity: large and conspicuous bump.  
Vein (v): a vessel returning blood to the heart.       Anatomical Terms of Direction and Movement.
    Abduction (abd.): draws away from midline.   Adduction (add.): draws toward the midline. Anatomic position: standing erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward.   Anterior (ant.) or ventral (vent.): situated before or in front  
Corrugator: that which wrinkles skin, draws skin in.  
Deep: farther from the surface (in a solid form).   Depressor: that which lowers.   Distal (dist.): farther from the root.   Dorsal (dors.): toward the rear, back; also back of hand and top of foot.  
Erector: that which draws upward.   Evert (ever.): turn outward (as foot at ankle joint).   Extension (ext.): straightening.   External (extern.): outside, refers to wall of cavity or hollow form).  
Flexion (flex.): bending or angulation.   Frontal (front.) or coronal (coron.): vertical; at right angles to sagittal; divides body into anterior and posterior parts  
Horizontal (horiz.): at right angles to vertical.  
Inferior (inf.): lower, farther from crown of head.   Internal (int.): inside (refers to wall of cavity or hollow form).   Inverted (invert.): turned inward (as foot at ankle joint).  
Lateral (lat.): .): farther from midline (or center plane).   Levator (lev.): that which raises.   Longitudinal (longit.): refers to long axis.  
Medial (med.): nearer to midline (or center plane).   Median: midway, being in the middle   Midline: divides body into a right and left side.   Midsagittal: vertical plane at midline dividing body into right and left halves  
Palmar (palm.) or volar (vol.): palm side of hand   Plantar (plant.): sole side of foot   Posterior (post.) or dorsal (dors.): rear or back   Pronator (pronat.): that which turns palm of hand downward.   Prone: forearm and hand turned palm side down; body lying face down.   Proximal (prox.): nearer to limb root.  
Rotator (rotat.): that which causes to revolve  
Sagittal (sagit.): vertical plane or section dividing body into right and left portions.   Sphincter: that which regulates closing of aperture.   Superficial (superf.): nearer to surface (refers to solid form).   Superior (sup.): upper, nearer to crown of head.   Supinator (supinat.): that which turns palm of hand upward.   Supine: forearm and hand turned palm side up; body lying face up.  
Tensor (tens.): that which draws tight   Transverse (trans.): at right angles to long axis; body divided into upper and lower parts.   Ventral (vent.) or anterior (ant.): situated before or in front of.   Vertical (vert.): refers to long axis in erect position.   Volar (vol.) or palmar (palm.): palm side of hand.   Library

Anatomic Images
1      2      3      4      5      6      7      8

 

---

 

Denstons Textbook of Pharmacognosy.
Compiled by Ivor Hughes

Part 2 of 2.

OIL OF ROSEMARY
Official Source: The flowering plant, Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. Fam.: Labiatae.
Geographical Source: S. France, and the islands off the Dalmatian coast.
Preparation: By distillation in steam.
Constituents: Borneol, 8 -18 %, official requirement being not less than 9-0 per cent w/w. Bornyl Acetate, 1-6 %, the official requirement being not less than 2-0 per cent w/w. Cineole, limited by an official test to an apparent content of 33-0 % Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes pinene and camphene, and camphor.
Adulteration: Both French and Dalmatian oil normally satisfy the official requirements. The chief substitute is an impure or commercial oil produced in large amounts in Spain by distilling together rosemary, spike lavender, and a high proportion of sage—spike lavender yielding an oil rich in borneol, and sage yielding an oil with an ester content of 6-20 per cent. Hence Spanish oil of Rosemary contains alcohols (chiefly borneol) and esters, and usually fulfils the official requirements. The optical rotation of oil of rosemary is officially – 5° to + 10°, that of oil of sage + 70° to + 24°, hence Spanish oil of rosemary usually has an optical rotation higher than that of genuine oil; this, with other factors, serves to detect substitution. Oil of camphor has also been reported as an adulterant; it is detected by the limit test for cineole.

 

OIL OF SANDALWOOD (East-Indian Sandalwood Oil)
Botanical Source: The heartwood of Santalum album Linn. Fam.: Santalaceae.
Geographical Source: India (principally Mysore).
Preparation: By slow distillation in steam or with water, the process taking a considerable time for completion owing to the density of the wood; yield 2-5 per cent.
Constituents: Santalol sesquiterpene alcohols, with other alcohols totaling 92-98 per cent, the B.P.C. requirement being not less than 90 per cent w/w. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes, santalene, and esters, chiefly santalyl acetate, about 2 per cent.
Adulteration: The standard of not less than 90 per cent of alcohols calculated as santalol ensures rejection of grossly adulterated oil. The principal adulterant is castor oil, which is not easily detected in small proportions, as its solubility in alcohol and its viscosity are similar to those of sandalwood oil.
Other adulterants: sometimes, oil of cedar wood, oil of copaiba, benzyl alcohol, and glyceryl acetate.

4. Oils containing Aldehydes.

 

Principle of Estimation
The estimation of Aldehydes is based on the fact that hydroxylamine combines quantitatively with aldehydes to form aldoximes –

C₉H₁₅CHO + H₂NOH, HC1    –» C₉H₁₅CHNOH + HC1 + H₂O
Citral              Hydroxylamine        Citraldoxim
                        hydrochloride

A known weight of oil is shaken in a stoppered tube with a known excess of an alcoholic solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride which has been rendered first yellow^* to methyl orange. The above reaction occurs partially with liberation of hydrochloric acid, and change in colour to red. Semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide is added to change the colour to yellow. Upon further shaking, more aldehyde combines and the red colour re-appears and is again discharged. This shaking and neutralization is repeated until the yellow colour of the lower layer remains unchanged after 2 minutes of vigorous shaking, followed by separation of the oil, indicating that all the aldehyde has combined. The total volume of semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide needed for the above processes is noted and gives an approximate value for the aldehyde. The test is repeated using as the standard for the end-point the reaction mixture obtained previously, to which a defined excess of semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide has been added. The result is calculated from the second determination (vide B.P., Appendix XI).

^* The solution contains, as a result, a small proportion of free hydroxylamine. The latter is a weak base, the pH of the hydrochloride being 3-2. The orange colour range of methyl orange lies between pH 2-9-4-0, hence if a neutral solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride were used in the test, adjustment to the particular shade of orange corresponding to pH 3-2 would be necessary. This is difficult, hence a constant error is introduced by starting with a solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride at about pH 9-0 (the pale yellow of methyl orange) and finishing at the same point—in this way an accurate end-point is obtained without affecting the result.

OIL OF CINNAMON
Official Source : The dried inner bark of coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylandicum Nees, and is known in commerce as Ceylon Cinnamon.
Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield about 0-5-1-0 per cent.
Constituents : Cinnamic Aldehyde, 58-76 per cent, the official requirement being 55-0-70-0 per cent w/w.
Eugenol, 4-8 per cent. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes cymene and caryophyllene
Tests and Adulteration : The two most important chemical tests are —
1. Determination of aldehyde (vide B.P., Appendix XI).
2. Limit-test for Eugenol. This test is designed to detect adulteration of oil of cinnamon with cinnamon leaf oil or cassia oil: the test is —

0.l ml. dissolved in 10 ml. of alcohol (90 per cent) assumes a slight green, but not a deep brown or blue coloration, on the addition of 0-1 ml. of test-solution of ferric chloride. Eugenol alone, and also cinnamon leaf oil which is rich in it, gives a blue colour with ferric chloride; cassia oil and its principal constituent cinnamic aldehyde gives a brown colour; the official oil of cinnamon, which contains both, produces a pale green colour, the test being, in effect, a limit-test for eugenol.

The high price of the oil has led to considerable adulteration and substitution, which chemical examination may fail to detect. The two principal adulterants are —
1. A factitious oil prepared by mixing suitable proportions of —
(a) Artificial cinnamic aldehyde, to give the correct content of this.
(b) Cinnamon leaf oil, which consists largely of eugenol, and is therefore quite different in composition from the official oil prepared from the bark. The latter contains from 4 to 8 per cent only of eugenol, which, in the factitious oil, is supplied by a suitable proportion of cinnamon leaf oil.
(c) Genuine oil of cinnamon to modify the odour of the above two constituents, and thereby make the product simulate genuine oil.

This factitious oil answers the official quantitative test for cinnamic aldehyde, and also the above qualitative test for limit of eugenol.

2. Cassia oil, obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum Cassia Blume, which contains about 75—90 per cent of cinnamic aldehyde, but no eugenol, hence the colour produced with test-solution of ferric chloride is brown. The adulteration of oil of cinnamon with a large proportion of oil of cassia would be revealed by an abnormally high content of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the failure to give the characteristic pale green colour in the qualitative test. The addition of 20 per cent or less of oil of cassia cannot usually be detected by either test, as the cinnamic aldehyde is not necessarily outside the official range, and with the qualitative test the intensity of the green colour, though reduced, is not masked.

From the above it will be seen that a factitious oil, or genuine oil containing less than 20 per cent of oil of cassia may fulfill the official chemical requirements, and considerable reliance must be placed on odour. The official oil contains a small proportion of substances not present in either the factitious oil or oil of cassia, and these substances modify the odour of the cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol, rendering it distinctively delicate by comparison.

OIL OF LEMON
Botanical Source : Sicily, Spain, Portugal, Italy and California.
Preparation : By expression, yield about 0-8 gm. per lemon.
Constituents : Citral — 4-5-5-0 per cent, the official requirement being not less than 4-0 per cent of aldehydes calculated as citral. Traces of other aldehydes, e.g. octyl aldehyde, monyl aldehyde, and esters, e.g. geranyl and linalyl acetates, are also present, and no doubt slightly modify the odour. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes d-limonene (citrene) 80 per cent, accompanied by a small proportion of l-limonene and sesquiterpenes. Machine-made oil is usually inferior in odour and taste and has a lower citral content and an appreciable proportion of resinous substances.
Tests : The principal test is the estimation of the aldehydes.

Mention has been made of terpeneless oils, of which terpeneless oil of lemon is the principal, being produced in large amounts. The terpenes separated in this process play an important part in the adulteration of oil of lemon. As obtained from lemons, the oil contains upwards of 5-5 %^* of aldehydes, and one method of adulteration commonly practiced is to dilute the oil to a 4 per cent content (the B.P. minimum) with these terpenes. The product still fulfils all the official requirements, and detection is impossible because the diluent is a normal constituent of oil of lemon.

* From winter-collected lemons; summer-collected lemons yield less.

Another method of adulteration is the admixture of citral from other sources, e.g. oil of lemon grass with the above-mentioned lemon terpenes, to give a product containing 4 per cent of citral. An admixture of this factitious oil with genuine oil of lemon is very difficult to detect because the chemical and physical constants are normal, and odour is the sole method of detection — oil of lemon grass giving a distinctive odour to the admixture.

PURIFIED VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMOND
Botanical Source : The cake left after pressing out the fixed oil from bitter almonds, peach kernels or apricot kernels.
Fam.: Rosaceae.
Geographical Source : Southern France, Sicily, and Northern Africa.
Preparation : This oil does not pre-exist in the seeds. It is prepared by crushing the seeds and freeing them from fixed oil, e.g. Sweet Oil of Almond, of which they contain about 40 per cent. The residual cake is re-crushed, mixed with water, enzyme action allowed to proceed for some hours at about 40° C., and the mixture then distilled. The interacting substances are the glycoside amygdaline and the enzyme emulsin, the latter causing hydrolysis of the former as follows —

Amygdalin + Water ——> Benzaldehyde + Hydrocyanic acid + Dextrose
                              (Emulsin)

Benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid are both volatile, and the oil which separates from the aqueous portion of the distillate consists chiefly of benzaldehyde, with about 2-4 per cent of hydrocyanic acid, of which part is free and part combined with the benzaldehyde in the form of an additive compound called benzaldehyde-cyanhydrin. The proportion of hydrocyanic acid present renders this oil very poisonous, hence prior to sale for pharmaceutical or domestic purposes the acid is removed as follows —

The oil is mixed with milk of lime, whereby the hydrocyanic acid, both free and combined, is converted into calcium cyanide. Ferrous sulphate is next added, and this converts the calcium cyanide into calcium ferrocyanide — a compound not decomposed in the subsequent distillation. The mixture is then distilled in a current of steam, and the oil which separates from the aqueous portion of the distillate consists almost entirely of benzaldehyde, and is known as Oleum Amygdalae Essentiale sine Acido Prussico. On account of its high cost it has been largely replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde. The yield is 0-5-1-0 per cent.
Constituents : Benzaldehyde, about 90 per cent. Hydrocyanic Acid, 2-4 per cent 5 m the original oil. The purified oil should contain not less than 95-0 per cent of benzaldehyde.

5. Oils containing Ketones.
Two official oils owe their value to the ketone carvone, though the odour of each is modified by accompanying substances.

 

Principle of Estimation: Ketones, like aldehydes, combine with hydroxylamine, and form ketox-imes. The method of estimating ketones follows therefore, in outline, that described for aldehydes.

OIL OF CARAWAY
Botanical Source : Holland and Germany.
Preparation : By distillation in steam ; yield 4-6 per cent.
Constituents : Carvone, 50-60 percent, the B.P.C. standard being 53-0-63-0 per cent w/w. d-Limonene (carvene), constitutes the remainder of the oil.

OIL OF DILL
Official Source : Germany, Rumania. England.
Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield 3-4 per cent.
Constituents : Carvone, 35-60 per cent, the official standard being 43-63 per cent w/w. d-Limonene is the principal terpene present, phellandrene and others being present in small proportion.
Adulteration : Two other varieties of oil of dill occur in commerce. One, oil of Indian dill, from Anethum Sowa Roxb. (Peucedanum Sowa Kurz), has a different composition containing dill-apiol. The sp. gr. of oil of Indian dill is 0-946—0970, whereas that of oil of dill is 0-900-0-915, hence the addition of a proportion of the former oil to the latter will raise the sp. gr. and give prima facie evidence of adulteration, probably with oil of Indian dill. The other variety is oil of dill of Spanish origin. This oil contains less carvone than the official oil, and substitution would be revealed by the lowered sp. gr., and by estimation of the carvone.

6. Oils containing Phenols
Only one official oil owes its value to a phenol, namely Oil of Clove, which is officially required to contain 85-0-90-0 per cent v/v of the phenol, eugenol.

Principle of Estimation. Estimation is based on the fact that phenols combine with caustic alkalis to form water-soluble compounds. Hence the difference in volume between the oil used and that remaining uncombined represents the amount of phenol present in the portion tested. The estimation is carried out in a special flask, called a Hirschsohn or Cassia flask, which is stoppered and has a long neck graduated like a burette. The oil and alkali are shaken thoroughly at intervals for a prescribed period, and the uncombined oil is then raised to the graduated neck by the addition of more alkali. After standing for 24 hours or more for complete separation to ensue, the volume of uncombined oil is read off. The percentage v/v of phenols is calculated from the data obtained.

OIL OF CLOVE

Official Source: Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pemba, Penang.

Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield about 15 per cent.

The oil can be fractionated into the two main constituents, eugenol (sp. gr. 1-072) and caryophyllene (sp. gr. 0-9085). In commercial distillation, however, the whole of the oil sinks to the bottom of the receiver. The first runnings of oil distilled from the buds possess quite a distinct character and are used in the perfumery trade.

Constituents : Eugenol, 76-90 per cent, the official requirement being 85-0-90-0 per cent v/v, determined as described above.

The remainder of the oil consists almost entirely of the terpene caryophyllene. Other constituents include furfuraldehyde (the provable cause of darkening on storage), methylamylketone and acetyleugenol.

7. Oils containing Oxides
Two official oils owe their value to cineole, which is chemically an inner ether, or lactone; it is also known as eucalyptol or cajuputol.

 

Principle of Estimation. The estimation is based on the fact that cineole combines with o-cresol to form a solid compound melting at 55-2° C. The other constituents lower the melting point according to the proportion present.

A prescribed weight of dry oil and pure dry o-cresol are mixed in a test tube, the contents warmed gently to melt the mixture, and the freezing point determined under prescribed conditions. The freezing point is re-determined by re-melting and cooling until two consecutive concordant results are obtained. The proportion of cineole which this represents is then found from a table (B.P., Appendix XI).

OIL OF CAJUPUT
Botanical Source : The fresh leaves and twigs of Melaleuca Leucadendron Linn. Fam.: Myrtaceae.
Geographical Source : Malay Archipelago (Molucca Islands).
Preparation : By distillation in steam, followed by rectification.
Constituents : Cineole, 45-55 per cent, the official requirement being 50-65 per cent w/w, determined by the process described above.
Subsidiary constituents are the terpene Z-pinene, and certain aldehydes.

OIL OF EUCALYPTUS
Official Source : The fresh leaves of various species of Eucalyptus. Fam.: Myrtaceae.
Geographical Source : Tasmania, Eastern Australia, and, to a small extent, Southern Europe.
Preparation : By distillation in steam, followed by rectification; yield 1-3 per cent. The foliage of the undergrowth produces the best oil. The Australian season for cutting the leaves and distilling extends from January to June.
Constituents: Cineole, 50-80 per cent, the official requirement being not less than 70-0 per cent w/w, determined as described above.
Tests : Limit of Phellandrene. There are many species of Eucalyptus, most of which yield an essential oil. The principal species used are E. polybractea and E. Smithii. Both yield an oil rich in cineole, averaging about 80 per cent in E. polybractea. Official standardization at not less than 70 per cent w/w of cineole has reduced admixture of oils rich in cineole with others containing but little. Certain of the latter, e.g. the oils yielded by E. Amygdalina, E. Baileyana, are not only poor in cineole but contain a considerable proportion of the sesquiterpene phellandrene, which is objectionable for medicinal use, and is therefore limited in the official specification. The limit-test is based on the combination of phellandrene with nitrous acid to form a crystalline compound insoluble in petroleum spirit. The test is carried out in the following manner.

“Mix 1 ml. of oil, 2 ml. of glacial acetic acid, 5 ml. of light petroleum, and 2 ml. of saturated solution of sodium nitrite, and shake gently.” The formation of a crystalline precipitate in the upper layer indicates the presence of oils containing an undue proportion of phellandrene.

Limit of Aldehydes. Eucalyptus maculata var. citriodora Hook, yields an oil containing 84-90 per cent of the aldehyde citronellal. The latter has a lemon-like odour and, the above oil is therefore known as “lemon-scented” eucalyptus oil. The official limit test for aldehydes limits the use of this oil, and others containing citronellal or other aldehydes, for the purpose of diluting oils rich in cineole to the official standard. The test is carried out as for aldehydes in volatile oils.

8. Oils containing Peroxides
Only one medicinal oil owes its value to a peroxide, namely Oil of Chenopodium, which is required to contain not less than 65-0 per cent w/w of the peroxide ascaridole.

Principle of Estimation : Estimation is based on the fact that peroxides liberate iodine quantitatively from an acidified solution of potassium iodide, and the iodine so formed can be ascertained by titration with standard solution of sodium thiosulphate. In the case of ascaridole, the estimation is complicated by a number of factors and the official details (B.P. 1953) must be rigidly followed in order to obtain concordant results. The latter are calculated from an empirical factor based on the results of a large number of determinations of pure ascaridole. (T. T. Cocking and F. C. Hymans, Analyst, 1930, 55, 180.)

OIL OF CHENOPODIUM
Synonym : Oil of American Wormseed.
Botanical Source : The fresh flowering and fruiting plants, excluding roots, of Chenopodium ambrosioides Luin var. anthelminticum Gray. Pam.: Chenopodiaceae.
Geographical Source : U.S.A., Central America, and West Indies.
Preparation : By distillation in steam. The process must be carried out rapidly, using special plant, since ascaridole is decomposed by slow distillation.
Constituents : Ascaridole, not less than 65-0 per cent w/w. (B.P. 1953.) Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes, cymene and terpinene. Due to the fact that ascaridole is a peroxide, the oil is a powerful oxidizing agent and therefore reacts, often very violently, with reducing agents. The oil explodes on heating.

9. Oils with Miscellaneous Constituents.

OIL OF NUTMEG
Botanical Source : East Indies. Penang. West Indies (Grenada)
Preparation : By distillation in steam, broken and damaged nutmegs being used; yield 8-15 per cent.
Constituents : d-Camphene, up to 80 per cent, and other terpenes, including d-pinene and dipentene.
Alcohols* including linalol, terpineol, geraniol, and borneol, 6 per cent.
Phenols including safrole, eugenol, and iso-eugenol, 0-8 per cent.
Myristicin (a methoxy derivative of safrole), 4 per cent, responsible for the toxic effects of large doses of the oil.
* According to Power and Salway.

Official Fractions of Volatile Oils.
The substances camphor (a ketone), menthol (an alcohol), and thymol (a phenol) are solid fractions, and eucalyptol (an oxide) is a liquid fraction of certain volatile oils. The solid compounds were at one time called stearoptenes, a term indicating that portion of a volatile oil which separated upon thorough cooling, the portion remaining liquid being called an elaeoptene. Although lacking chemical precision, these terms are still used for descriptive purposes. Camphor, menthol, thymol, and eucalyptol are prepared by widely different methods, and will therefore be described separately.

CAMPHOR
Camphor may be prepared either from natural sources or by synthesis.

Natural Camphor.
Official Source : The tree, Cinnamomum Camphora (Linn.) Nees and Eberm. Fam.: Lauraceae.
Geographical Source : Formosa (produces about 75 per cent of the world’s requirements). China (provinces on the straits of Formosa) producing the remainder.

Camphor production is a large industry in these areas; the quantity used in medicine, although important, represents only a small fraction of the output, a considerably larger quantity being used in the production of celluloid. In Formosa replanting has been carried out to ensure continuous and increasing supplies. In China, replanting has been neglected, with consequent diminution of yield. Most parts of the tree contain oil-cells in which volatile oil is secreted, averaging 3 to 6 per cent. This oil contains 10-50 per cent of camphor, the highest proportion being found in the oil contained in the older parts of the tree, e.g. the root and trunk. It has been stated (T. Yahagi, Jap. J. Ghem., 1928, 3, 109) that the formation of camphor is due to the action of an enzyme, possibly a peroxidase, on certain cell-constituents, and that enzyme activity is greatest in the actively-growing parts, notably in the layer of wood tissue just within the cambium. Hence each zone of wood, as formed, becomes rich in camphor which remains there as growth proceeds ; consequently, the woody tissue of root and trunk from mature trees becomes the principal camphor-containing part of the tree, and in Formosa distillation is mainly from the wood of trees 40 to 50 years old. The average yield of camphor is about 5 kilogram. per tree.

 

COMPOSITION OF NATURAL OIL OF CAMPHOR
The natural oil obtained from the camphor tree contains a large number of compounds. This oil may be separated by fractional distillation into three main fractions;

1. A Light Fraction. This is collected up to about 200° C. It consists chiefly of terpenes together with cineole. This oil is known as light oil of camphor and sometimes by the misleading name of essential oil of camphor.

2. A Middle Fraction. This is collected from about 200 to 230° C. It consists chiefly of camphor.

3. A Heavy Fraction. This is collected from about 230° C. It contains a high proportion of safrol. Upon refrigeration, safrole crystallizes out, the other substances remaining liquid. This liquid is drained off and the crystalline mass pressed. The latter is then allowed to liquefy, and purified by re-refrigeration. The product is almost pure safrole. The latter has almost entirely replaced Oil of Sassafras, and is also used for the manufacture of heliotropin, a substance having the odour of heliotrope and used in perfumery. The natural oil usually contains sufficient camphor to render it semi-solid at ordinary temperatures. When pressed, the liquid portion can be expelled leaving behind a solid mass consisting of crude camphor.

Preparation : The trunk and branches of the felled tree are cut into chips which are placed on the perforated false bottom of a still, connected by a pipe to a water-cooled receiver. Beneath the false bottom water is heated, or steam passed in, whereupon the oil is volatilized, passing with the steam into the condenser. If the whole of the oil is collected without interruption, a semi-solid product is obtained, from which the liquid portion is removed by draining and pressing, leaving behind crude camphor. Alternatively, the receiver may be changed when most of the terpenes have distilled over, and the crude camphor collected separately. These processes are carried out in the area of collection, and the crude camphor is then taken to refineries for purification. In one process of purification, the crude camphor is mixed with lime (to absorb the water present) and sand, and then sublimed in large vats, each fitted with a cone-shaped lid, provided with a flat, partial diaphragm. Upon heating, the sublimate of pure camphor collects on the lid in blocks, which are then cut for export into slabs weighing about 2 lb. In the other purification process the still is connected to very large cooled receivers. The hot camphor vapour condenses in the enclosed atmosphere in the form of small detached crystals (camphor flowers), which collect on the floor of the receiver.

Synthetic Camphor.
Camphor may be synthesized from pinene, the terpene which forms the bulk of oil of turpentine. The pinene is converted through bornyl chloride to the alcohol borneol and this is oxidized to the ketone camphor. Synthetic camphor is optically inactive, being a mixture of equal amounts of the laevo- and dextro-compounds; natural camphor consists only of the latter and is therefore optically active. Pure synthetic camphor is identical in appearance with natural camphor but is more waxy to the touch. Moreover the synthetic material is liable to contain as impurity a small proportion of iso-borneol due to the last stage in the synthesis not going to completion and the difficulty of removing all unchanged iso-borneol on account of the similarity in certain properties.

MENTHOL
Official Source : Various species of Mentha, or prepared synthetically. Fam.: Labiates.
Geographical Source : Brazil, Japan, principally the northern island, Hokkaido. China produces a relatively small amount.
The official oil of peppermint, from M. piperita grown in the U.S.A. and England is but little used for the preparation of menthol. The latter is obtained from Japanese peppermint oil yielded by M. arvensis Linn. var. piperascens Holmes, Chinese peppermint oil obtained from M. arvensis Linn. var. glabrata, and Brazilian peppermint oil. The herbs yield about 0-3 per cent of volatile oil of which the Japanese is the richest in menthol; it contains 70 – 90 per cent, the oil being a crystalline mass at room temperature due to crystallization of the menthol.

Preparation : The oil is steam-distilled from the cut herb after it has partially withered a condition found by experience to produce the highest yield. Upon freezing the oil, rather more than half of the menthol separates as crystals, and these are drained from the liquid portion of the oil, and then re-crystallized from alcohol.

The separated liquid portion is known as Japanese dementholized peppermint oil, and still contains 40-54 per cent of menthol, and 5-17 per cent of esters of menthol. By boiling with solution of sodium hydroxide these esters may be decomposed to form menthol, and, upon further freezing, the saponified oil yields a second crop of menthol crystals. However, most of the oil is exported without further treatment, to be used in the manufacture of confectionery and cordials.

Synthetic Menthol.
The molecule of menthol contains three asymmetric carbon atoms and consequently various isomeric forms are possible. Natural menthol is laevo-rotatary and the Pharmacopoeia also recognizes synthetic menthol in its laevo and racemic forms.

THYMOL
Thymol may be prepared either from natural sources or by synthesis.
Natural Thymol.
Official Sources : The volatile oils of the following plants :

 

* Yielding Indian Ajowan Seed, formerly important but now little cultivated.

It has also been prepared from the stem and leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (Fam. Labiatae), grown in India, Ceylon and Java. This source yields about 0-5 per cent of oil containing about 55 per cent of thymol.

Preparation : After separation by steam-distillation, the oil is subjected to fractional distillation in order to separate the bulk of the hydrocarbons (low boiling-point fraction), and thereby raise the content of thymol. The hydrocarbon-free oil is then shaken with solution of sodium hydroxide, with which the thymol combines to form a water-soluble compound called sodium thymate — analogous to sodium phenate. Upon standing, the mixture resolves into two layers, an oily layer now free from thymol, and an aqueous layer containing sodium thymate. The latter is separated and acidified with hydrochloric acid, which decomposes the sodium thymate, re-forming thymol. The latter is practically insoluble in water and separates as an oily liquid — the presence of impurities preventing crystallization. Crystallization is induced by sowing a few crystals of thymol in the liquid. The product thereby obtained is next dissolved in the minimum of alcohol, the solution decolorized by filtration through animal charcoal, and after dilution with water it is set aside, whereupon thymol crystallizes out in the form of large rhombic prisms.

Synthetic Thymol.
Thymol is chemically 3-methyl-6-isopropylphenol and is prepared by the oxidation of piperitone, derived from Javan Citronella Oil or from Australian Eucalyptus dives oil. Other synthetic methods start from p-cymene (derived from turpentine) or m-cresol (a coal tar product) which is condensed with iso-propyl alcohol or propylene in the presence of phosphoric acid.

EUCALYPTOL
Synonym : Cineole.
Official Source : As for Oil of Eucalyptus,
Preparation : Preparation is usually based on the fact that at low temperatures eucalyptol combines with phosphoric acid to form a solid additive compound from which the non-eucalyptol fluid portion of the oil can be almost completely separated by pressure. Subsequent treatment of the solid compound with warm water resolves it into phosphoric acid and eucalyptol, the latter separating as an oily layer. The latter is then purified.
The Pharmacopoeia requires eucalyptol to have a freezing-point not lower than 0°.

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THE CATECHISM OF PARACELSUS
Ω
Adam Mclean had this to say about the catechism 

In his Ritual de la Haute Magie, chapter 19, Eliphas Levi, describes a manuscript of Paracelsus supposedly in the Vatican, entitled “the Chemical Pathway or Manual”. He claims that a this was transcribed by Sendivogius and used by Baron Tschoudy when composing the Hermetic Catechism in his L’Etoile Flamboyant ou la Société des Franc-Maçons considerée sous tous les aspects, 1766. I have not been able to locate the Paraclesus work in the Vatican nor Sendivogius’ transcription, however, the Hermetic Catechism of Baron Tschoudy is a fine piece of hermetic philosophy. The version here has been taken from A.E. Waite’s translation published in the two volume Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus, which he heavily edited of masonic remarks of Tschoudy.

Ω

A SHORT CATECHISM OF ALCHEMY.

Q. What is the chief study of a Philosopher?

A. It is the investigation of the operations of Nature.

Q. What is the end of Nature?

A. God, Who is also its beginning.

Q. Whence are all things derived?

A. From one and indivisible Nature.

Q. Into how many regions is Nature separated?

A. Into four palmary regions.

Q. Which are they?

A. The dry, the moist, the warm, and the cold, which are the four elementary qualities, whence all things originate.

Q. How is Nature differentiated?

A. Into male and female.

Q. To what may we compare Nature?

A. To Mercury.

Q. Give a concise definition of Nature.

A. It is not visible, though it operates visibly; for it is simply a volatile spirit, fulfilling its office in bodies, and animated by the universal spirit-the divine breath, the central and universal fire, which vivifies all things that exist.

Q. What should be the qualities possessed by the examiners of Nature?

A. They should be like unto Nature herself. That is to say, they should be truthful, simple, patient, and persevering.

Q. What matters should subsequently engross their attention?

A. The philosophers should most carefully ascertain whether their designs are in harmony with Nature, and of a possible and attainable kind; if they would accomplish by their own power anything that is usually performed by the power of Nature, they must imitate her in every detail.

Q. What method must be followed in order to produce something which shall be developed to a superior degree than Nature herself develops it.

A. The manner of its improvement must be studied, and this is invariably operated by means of a like nature. For example, if it be desired to develop the intrinsic virtue of a given metal beyond its natural condition, the chemist must avail himself of the metallic nature itself, and must be able to discriminate between its male and female differentiations.

Q. Where does the metallic nature store her seeds?

A. In the four elements.

Q. With what materials can the philosopher alone accomplish anything?

A. With the germ of the given matter; this is its elixir or quintessence, more precious by far, and more useful, to the artist, than is Nature herself. Before the philosopher has extracted the seed, or germ, Nature, in his behalf, will be ready to perform her duty.

Q. What is the germ, or seed, of any substance?

A. It is the most subtle and perfect decoction and digestion of the substance itself; or, rather, it is the Balm of Sulphur, which is identical with the Radical Moisture of Metals.

Q. By what is this seed, or germ, engendered?

A. By the four elements, subject to the will of the Supreme Being, and through the direct intervention of the imagination of Nature.

Q. After what manner do the four elements operate?

A. By means of an incessant and uniform motion, each one, according to its quality, depositing its seed in the centre of the earth, where it is subjected to action and digested, and is subsequently expelled in an outward direction by the laws of movement.

Q. What do the philosophers understand by the centre of the earth?

A. A certain void place where nothing may repose, and the existence of which is assumed.

Q. Where, then, do the four elements expel and deposit their seeds?

A. In the ex-centre, or in the margin and circumference of the centre, which, after it has appropriated a portion, casts out the surplus into the region of excrement, scoriae, fire, and formless chaos.

Q. Illustrate this teaching by an example.

A. Take any level table, and set in its centre a vase filled with water; surround the vase with several things of various colours, especially salt, taking care that a proper distance intervenes between them all. Then pour out the water from the vase, and it will flow in streams here and there; one will encounter a substance of a red colour, and will assume a tinge of red; another will pass over the salt, and will contract a saline flavour; for it is certain that water does not modify the places which it traverses, but the diverse characteristics of places change the nature of water. In the same way the seed which is deposited by the four elements at the centre of the earth is subject to a variety of modifications in the places through which it passes, so that every existing substance is produced in the likeness of its channel, and when a seed on its arrival at a certain point encounters pure earth and pure water, a pure substance results, but the contrary in an opposite case.

Q. After what manner do the elements procreate this seed?

A. In order to the complete elucidation of this point, it must be observed that there are two gross and heavy elements and two that are volatile in character. Two, in like manner, are dry and two humid, one out of the four being actually excessively dry, and the other excessively moist. They are also masculine and feminine. Now, each of them has a marked tendency to reproduce its own species within its own sphere. Moreover, they are never in repose, but are perpetually interacting, and each of them separates, of and by itself, the most subtle portion thereof. Their general place of meeting is in the centre, even the centre of the Archeus, that servant of Nature, where coming to mix their several seeds, they agitate and finally expel them to the exterior.

Q. What is the true and the first matter of all metals?

A. The first matter, properly so called, is dual in its essence, or is in itself of a twofold nature; one, nevertheless, cannot create a metal without the concurrence of the other. The first and the palmary essence is an aerial humidity, blended with a warm air, in the form of a fatty water, which adheres to all substances indiscriminately, whether they are pure or impure.

Q. How has this humidity been named by Philosophers?

A. Mercury.

Q. By what is it governed?

A. By the rays of the Sun and Moon.

Q. What is the second matter?

A. The warmth of the earth -otherwise, that dry heat which is termed Sulphur by the Philosophers.

Q. Can the entire material body be converted into seed?

A. Its eight-hundredth part only-that, namely, which is secreted in the centre of the body in question, and may, for example, be seen in a grain of wheat.

Q. Of what use is the bulk of the matter as regards its seed?

A. It is useful as a safeguard against excessive heat, cold, moisture, or aridity, and, in general, all hurtful inclemency, against which it acts as an envelope.

Q. Would those artists who pretend to reduce the whole matter of any body into seed derive any advantage from the process, supposing it were possible to perform it?

A. None; on the contrary, their labour would be wholly unproductive, because nothing that is good can be accomplished by a deviation from natural methods.

Q. What, therefore, should be done?

A. The matter must be effectively separated from its impurities, for there is no metal, how pure soever, which is entirely free from imperfections, though their extent varies. Now all superfluities, cortices, and scoriae must be peeled off and purged out from the matter in order to discover its seed.

Q. What should receive the most careful attention of the Philosopher?

A. Assuredly, the end of Nature, and this is by no means to be looked for in the vulgar metals, because, these having issued already from the hands of the fashioner, it is no longer to be found therein.

Q. For what precise reason?

A. Because the vulgar metals, and chiefly gold, are absolutely dead, while ours, on the contrary, are absolutely living, and possess a soul.

Q. What is the life of metals?

A. It is no other substance than fire, when they are as yet imbedded in the mines.

Q. What is their death?

A. Their life and death are in reality one principle, for they die, as they live, by fire, but their death is from a fire of fusion.

Q. After what manner are metals conceived in the womb of the earth?

A. When the four elements have developed their power or virtue in the centre of the earth, and have deposited their seed, the Archeus of Nature, in the course of a distillatory process, sublimes them superficially by the warmth and energy of the perpetual movement.

Q. Into what does the wind resolve itself when it is distilled through the pores of the earth?

A. It resolves itself into water, whence all things spring; in this state it is merely a humid vapour, out of which there is subsequently evolved the principiated principle of all substances, which also serves as the first matter of the Philosophers.

Q. What then is this principiated principle, which is made use of as the first matter by the Children of Knowledge in the philosophic achievement?

A. It is this identical matter, which, the moment it is conceived, receives a permanent and unchangeable form.

Q. Are Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, the Sun, the Moon, etc., separately endowed with individual seed?

A. One is common to them all; their differences are to be accounted for by the: locality from which they are derived, not to speak of the fact that Nature completes her work with far greater rapidity in the procreation of silver than in that of gold, and so of the other metals, each in its own proportion.

Q. How is gold formed in the bowels of the earth?

A. When this vapour, of which we have spoken, is sublimed in the centre of the earth, and when it has passed through warm and pure places, where a certain sulphureous grease adheres to the channels, then this vapour, which the Philosophers have denominated their Mercury, becomes adapted and joined to this grease, which it sublimes with itself; from such amalgamation there is produced a certain unctuousness, which, abandoning the vaporous form, assumes that of grease, and is sublimised in other places, which have been cleansed by this preceding vapour, and the earth whereof has consequently been rendered more subtle, pure, and humid; it fills the pores of this earth, is joined thereto, and gold is produced as a result.

Q. How is Saturn engendered?

A. It occurs when the said unctuosity, or grease, passes through places which are totally impure and cold.

Q. How is Venus brought forth?

A. She is produced in localities where the earth itself is pure, but is mingled with impure sulphur.

Q. What power does the vapour, which we have recently mentioned, possess in the centre of the earth?

A. By its continual progress it has the power of perpetually rarefying whatsoever is crude and impure, and of successively attracting to itself all that is pure around it.

Q. What is the seed of the first matter of all things?

A. The first matter of things, that is to say, the matter of principiating principles is begotten by Nature, without the assistance of any other seed; in other words, Nature receives the matter from the elements, whence it subsequently brings forth the seed.

Q. What, absolutely speaking, is therefore the seed of things?

A. The seed in a body is no other thing than a congealed air, or a humid vapour, which is useless except it be dissolved by a warm vapour.

Q. How is the generation of seed comprised in the metallic kingdom?

A. By the artifice of Archeus the four elements, in the first generation of Nature, distil a ponderous vapour of water into the centre of the earth ; this is the seed of metals, and it is called Mercury, not on account of its essence, but because of its fluidity, and the facility with which it will adhere to each and every thing.

Q. Why is this vapour compared to sulphur?

A. Because of its internal heat.

Q. From what species of Mercury are we to conclude that the metals are composed?

A. The reference is exclusively to the Mercury of the Philosophers, and in no sense to the common or vulgar substance, which cannot become a seed, seeing that, like other metals, it already contains its own seed.

Q. What, therefore, must actually be accepted as the subject of our matter?

A. The seed alone, otherwise the fixed grain, and not the whole body, which is differentiated into Sulphur, or living male, and into Mercury, or living female.

Q. What operation must be afterwards performed

A. They must be joined together, so that they may form a germ, after which they will proceed to the procreation of a fruit which is conformed to their nature.

Q. What is the part of the artist in this operation?

A. The artist must do nothing but separate that which is subtle from that which is gross.

Q. To what, therefore, is the whole philosophic combination reduced?

A. The development of one into two, and the reduction of two into one, and nothing further.

Q. Whither must we turn for the seed and life of meals and minerals?

A. The seed of minerals is properly the water which exists in the centre

And the heart of the minerals.

Q. How does Nature operate by the help of Art?

A. Every seed, whatsoever its kind, is useless, unless by Nature or Art it is placed in a suitable matrix, where it receives its life by the coction of the germ! and by the congelation of the pure particle, or fixed grain.

Q. How is the seed subsequently nourished and preserved?

A. By the warmth of its body.

Q. What is therefore performed by the artist in the mineral kingdom?

A. He finishes what cannot be finished by Nature on account of the crudity of the air, which has permeated the pores of all bodies by its violence, but on the surface and not in the bowels of the earth.

Q. What correspondence have the metals among themselves?

A. It is necessary for a proper comprehension of the nature of this correspondence to consider the position of the planets, and to pay attention to Saturn, which is the highest of all, and then is succeeded by Jupiter, next by Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and, lastly, by the Moon. It must be observed that the influential virtues of the planets do not ascend but descend, and experience teaches us that Mars can be easily converted into Venus, not Venus into Mars, which is of a lower sphere. So, also, Jupiter can be easily transmuted into Mercury, because Jupiter is superior to Mercury, the one being second after the firmament, the other second above the earth, and Saturn is highest of all, while the Moon is lowest. The Sun enters into all, but it is never ameliorated by its inferiors. It is clear that there is a large correspondence between Saturn and the Moon, in the middle of which is the Sun; but to all these changes the Philosopher should strive to administer the Sun.

Q. When the Philosophers speak of gold and silver, from which they extract their matter, are we to suppose that they refer to the vulgar gold and silver?

A. By no means; vulgar silver and gold are dead, while those of the Philosophers are full of life.

Q. What is the object of research among the Philosophers?

A. Proficiency in the art of perfecting what Nature has left imperfect in the mineral kingdom, and the attainment of the treasure of the Philosophical Stone.

Q. What is this Stone?

A. The Stone is nothing else than the radical humidity of the elements, perfectly purified and educed into a sovereign fixation, which causes it to perform such great things for health, life being resident exclusively in the humid radical.

Q. In what does the secret of accomplishing this admirable work consist?

A. It consists in knowing how to educe from potentiality into activity the innate warmth, or the fire of Nature, which is enclosed in the centre of the radical humidity.

Q. What are the precautions which must be made use of to guard against failure in the work?

A. Great pains must be taken to eliminate excrements from the matter, and to conserve nothing but the kernel, which contains all the virtue of the compound.

Q. Why does this medicine heal every species of disease?

A. It is not on account of tile variety of its qualities, but simply because it powerfully fortifies the natural warmth, which it gently stimulates, while other physics irritate it by too violent an action.

Q How can you demonstrate to me the truth of the art in the matter of the tincture?

A. Firstly, its truth is founded on the fact that the physical powder, being composed of the same substance as the metals, namely, quicksilver, has the faculty of combining with these in fusion, one nature easily embracing another which is like itself. Secondly, seeing that the imperfection of the base metals is owing to the crudeness of their quicksilver, and to that alone, the physical powder, which is a ripe and decocted quicksilver, and, in itself a pure fire, can easily communicate to them its own maturity, and can transmute them into its nature, after it has attracted their crude humidity, that is to say, their quicksilver, which is the sole substance that transmutes them, the rest being nothing but scoriae and excrements, which are rejected in projection.

Q. What road should the Philosopher follow that he may attain to the knowledge and execution of the physical work?

A. That precisely which was followed by the Great Architect of the Universe in the creation of the world, by observing how the chaos was evolved.

Q. What was the matter of the chaos?

A. It could be nothing else than a humid vapour, because water alone enters into all created substances, which all finish in a strange term, this term being a proper subject for the impression of all forms.

Q. Give me an example to illustrate what you have just stated.

A. An example may be found in the special productions of composite substances, the seeds of which invariably begin by resolving themselves into a certain humour, which is the chaos of the particular matter, whence issues, by a kind of irradiation, the complete form of the plant. Moreover, it should be observed that Holy Scripture makes no mention of anything except water as the material subject whereupon the Spirit of God brooded, nor of anything except light as the universal form of things.

Q. What profit may the Philosopher derive from these considerations, and what should he especially remark in the method of creation which was pursued by the Supreme Being?

A. In the first place he should observe the matter out of which the world was made; he will see that out of this confused mass, the Sovereign Artist began by extracting light, that this light in the same moment dissolved the darkness which covered the face of the earth, and that it served as the universal form of the matter. He will then easily perceive that in the generation of all composite substances, a species of irradiation takes place, and a separation of light and darkness, wherein Nature is an undeviating copyist of her Creator. The Philosopher will equally understand after what manner, by the action of this light, the empyrean, or firmament which divides the superior and inferior waters, was subsequently produced; how the sky was studded with luminous bodies; and how the necessity for the moon arose, which was owing to the space intervening between the things above and the things below; for the moon is an intermediate torch between the superior and the inferior worlds, receiving the celestial influences and communicating them to the earth. Finally he will understand how the Creator, in the gathering of the waters, produced dry land.

Q. How many heavens can you enumerate?

A. Properly there is one only, which is the firmament that divides the waters from the waters. Nevertheless, three are admitted, of which the first is the space that is above the clouds. In this heaven the waters are rarefied, and fall upon the fixed stars, and it is also in this space that the planets and wandering stars perform their revolutions. The second heaven is the firmament of the fixed stars, while the third is the abode of the supercelestial waters.

Q. Why is the rarefaction of the waters confined to the first heaven?

A. Because it is in the nature of rarefied substances to ascend, and because God, in His eternal laws, has assigned its proper sphere to everything.

Q. Why does each celestial body invariably revolve about an axis?

A. It is by reason of the primeval impetus which it received, and by virtue of the same law which will cause any heavy substance suspended from a thread to turn with the same velocity, if the power which impels its motion be always equal.

Q. Why do the superior waters never descend?

A. Because of their extreme rarefaction. It is for this reason that a skilled chemist can derive more profit from the study of rarefaction than from any other science whatsoever.

Q. What is the matter of the firmament?

A. It is properly air, which is more suitable than water as a medium of light.

Q. After the separation of the waters from the dry earth, what was performed by the Creator to originate generation?

A. He created a certain light which was destined for this office; He placed it in the central fire, and moderated this fire by the humidity of water and by the coldness of earth, so as to keep a check upon its energy and adapt it to His design.

Q. What is the action of this central fire?

A. It continually operates upon the nearest humid matter, which it exalts into vapour; now this vapour is the mercury of Nature and the first matter of the three kingdoms.

Q. How is the sulphur of Nature subsequently formed?

A. By the interaction of the central fire and the mercurial vapour.

Q. How is the salt of the sea produced?

A. By the action of the same fire upon aqueous humidity, when the aerial humidity, which is contained therein, has been exhaled.

Q. What should be done by a truly wise Philosopher when he has once mastered the foundation and the order in the procedure of the Great Architect of the Universe in the construction of all that exists in Nature?

A. He should, as far as may be possible, become a faithful copyist of his Creator. In the physical chaos he should make his chaos such as the original actually was; he should separate the light from the darkness : he should form his firmament for the separation of the waters which are above from the waters which are below, and should successively accomplish, point by point, the entire sequence of the creative act.

Q. With what is this grand and sublime operation performed?

A. With one single corpuscle, or minute body, which, so to speak, contains nothing but faeces, filth, and abominations, but whence a certain tenebrous and mercurial humidity is extracted, which contains in itself all that is required by the Philosopher, because, as a fact, he is in search of nothing hut the true Mercury.

Q. What kind of mercury, therefore, must he make use of in performing the work? A. Of a mercury which, as such, is not found on the earth, but is extracted from bodies, yet not from vulgar mercury, as it has been falsely said.

Q. Why is the latter unfitted to the needs of our work?

A. Because the wise artist must take notice that vulgar mercury has an insufficient quantity of sulphur, and he should consequently operate upon a body created by Nature, in which Nature herself has united the sulphur and mercury that it is the work of the artist to separate.

Q. What must he subsequently do?

A. He must purify them and join them anew together.

Q. How do you denominate the body of which we have been speaking?

A. The RUDE STONE, Or Chaos, or Iliaste, or Hyle–that confused mass which is known but universally despised.

Q. As you have told me that Mercury is the one thing which the Philosopher must absolutely understand, will you give me a circumstantial description of it, so as to avoid misconception?

A. In respect of its nature, our Mercury is dual–fixed and volatile; in regard to its motion, it is also dual, for it has a motion of ascent and of descent; by that of descent, it is the influence of plants, by which it stimulates the drooping fire of Nature, and this is its first office previous to congelation. By its ascensional movement, it rises, seeking to be purified, and as this is after congelation, it is considered to be the radical moisture of substances, which, beneath its vile scoriae, still preserves the nobility of its first origin.

Q. How many species of moisture do you suppose to be in each composite thing?

A. There are three–the Elementary, which is properly the vase of the other elements; the Radical, which, accurately speaking, is the oil, or balm, in which the entire virtue of the subject is resident–lastly, the Alimentary, the true natural dissolvent, which draws up the drooping internal fire, causing corruption and blackness by its humidity, and fostering and sustaining the subject.

Q. How many species of Mercury are there known to the Philosophers?

A. The Mercury of the Philosophers may be regarded under four aspects; the first is entitled the Mercury of bodies, which is actually their concealed seed; the second is the Mercury of Nature, which is the Bath or Vase of the Philosophers, otherwise the humid radical; to the third has been applied the designation, Mercury of the Philosophers, because it is found in their laboratory and in their minera. It is the sphere of Saturn; it is the Diana of the Wise; it is the true salt of metals, after the acquisition of which the true philosophic work may be truly said to have begun. In its fourth aspect, it is called Common Mercury, which yet is not that of the Vulgar, but rather is properly the true air of the Philosophers, the true middle substance of water, the true secret and concealed fire, called also common fire, because it is common to all minerae, for it is the substance of metals, and thence do they derive their quantity and quality.

Q. How many operations art comprised in our work?

A. There is one only, which may be resolved into sublimation, and sublimation, according to Geber, is nothing other than the elevation of the dry matter by the mediation of fire, with adherence to its own vase.

Q. What precaution should be taken in reading the Hermetic Philosophers ?

A. Great care, above all, must be observed upon this point, lest what they say upon the subject should be interpreted literally and in accordance with the mere sound of the words: For the letter killeth, but the spirit giveth life.

Q. What books should be read in order to have an acquaintance with our science?

A. Among the ancients, all the works of Hermes should especially be studied; in the next place, a certain book, entitled The Passage of the Red Sea, and another, The Entrance into the Promised Land. Paracelsus also should be read before all among elder writers, and, among other treatises, his Chemical Pathway, or the Manual of Paracelsus, which contains all the mysteries of demonstrative physics and the most arcane Kabbalah. This rare and unique manuscript work exists only in the Vatican Library, but Sendivogius had the good fortune to take a copy of it, which has helped in the illumination of the sages of our order. Secondly, Raymond Lully must be read, and his Vade Mecum above all, his dialogue called the Tree of Life, his testament, and his codicil. There must, however, be a certain precaution exercised in respect to the two last, because, like those of Geber, and also of Arnold de Villanova, they abound in false recipes and futile fictions, which seem to have been inserted with the object of more effectually disguising the truth from the ignorant. In the third place, the Turba Philosophorum which is a collection of ancient authors, contains much that is materially good, though there is much also which is valueless. Among mediaeval writers Zachary, Trevisan, Roger Bacon, and a certain anonymous author, whose book is entitled The Philosophers, should be held especially high in the estimation of the student. Among moderns the most worthy to be prized are John Fabricius, Francois de Nation, and Jean D’Espagnet, who wrote Physics Restored, though, to say the truth, he has imported some false precepts and fallacious opinions into his treatise.

Q. When may the Philosopher venture to undertake the work?

A. When he is, theoretically, able to extract, by means of a crude spirit, a digested spirit out of a body in dissolution, which digested spirit he must again rejoin to the vital oil.

Q. Explain me this theory in a clearer manner.

A. It may be demonstrated more completely in the actual process; the great experiment may be undertaken when the Philosopher, by the medium of a vegetable menstruurn, united to a mineral menstruum, is qualified to dissolve a third essential menstruum, with which menstruum united he must wash the earth, and then exalt it into a celestial quintessence, to compose the sulphureous thunderbolt, which instantaneously penetrates substances and destroys their excrements.

Q. Have those persons a proper acquaintance with Nature who pretend to make use of vulgar gold for seed, and of vulgar mercury for the dissolvent, or the earth in which it should be sown?

A. Assuredly not, because neither the one nor the other possesses the external agent–gold, because it has been deprived of it by decoction, and mercury because it has never had it.

Q. In seeking this auriferous seed elsewhere than in gold itself, is there no danger of producing a species of monster, since one appears to be departing from Nature?

A. It is undoubtedly true that in gold is contained the auriferous seed, and that in a more perfect condition than it is found in any other body; but this does not force us to make use of vulgar gold, for such a seed is equally found in each of the other metals, and is nothing else but that fixed grain which Nature has infused in the first congelation of mercury, all metals having one origin and a common substance, as will be ultimately unveiled to those who become worthy of receiving it by application and assiduous study.

Q. What follows from this doctrine?

A. It follows that, although the seed is more perfect in gold, it may be extracted much more easily from another body than from gold itself, other bodies being more open, that is to say, less digested, and less restricted in their humidity.

Q. Give me an example taken from Nature.

A. Vulgar gold may be likened to a fruit which, having come to a perfect maturity, has been cut off from its tree, and though it contains a most perfect and well-digested seed, notwithstanding, should anyone set it in the ground, with a view to its multiplication, much time, trouble, and attention will be consumed in the development of its vegetative capabilities. On the other hand, if a cutting, or a root, be taken from the same tree, and similarly planted, in a short time, and with no trouble, it will spring up and produce much fruit.

Q. Is it necessary that an amateur of this science should understand the formation of metals in the bowels of the earth if he wishes to complete his work ?

A. So indispensable is such a knowledge that should anyone fail, before all other studies, to apply himself to its attainment, and to imitate Nature point by point therein, he will never succeed in accomplishing anything but what is worthless.

Q. How, then, does Nature deposit metals in the bowels of the earth, and of what does she compose them ?

A. Nature manufactures them all out of sulphur and mercury, and forms them by their double vapour.

Q. What do you mean by this double vapour, and how can metals be formed thereby?

A. In order to a complete understanding of this question, it must first be stated that mercurial vapour is united to sulphureous vapour in a cavernous place which contains a saline water, which serves as their matrix. Thus is formed, firstly, the Vitriol of Nature; secondly, by the commotion of the elements, there is developed out of this Vitriol of Nature a new vapour, which is neither mercurial nor sulphureous, yet is allied to both these natures, and this, passing through places to which the grease of sulphur adheres, is joined therewith, and out of their union a glutinous substance is produced, otherwise, a formless mass, which is permeated by the vapour that fills these cavernous places. By this vapour, acting through the sulphur it contains, are produced the perfect metals, provided that the vapour and the locality are pure. If the locality and the vapour are impure, imperfect metals result. The terms perfection and imperfection have reference to various degrees of concoction.

Q. What is contained in this vapour?

A. A spirit of light and a spirit of fire, of the nature of the celestial bodies, which properly should be considered as the form of the universe.

Q. What does this vapour represent?

A. This vapour, thus impregnated by the universal spirit, represents, in a fairly complete way, the original Chaos, which contained all that was required for the original creation, that is, universal matter and universal form.

Q. And one cannot, notwithstanding, make use of vulgar mercury in the process?

A. No, because vulgar mercury, as already made plain, is devoid of external agent.

Q. Whence comes it that common mercury is without its external agent?

A. Because in the exaltation of the double vapour, the commotion has been so great and searching, that the spirit, or agent, has evaporated, as occurs, with very close similarity, in the fusion of metals. The result is that the unique mercurial part is deprived of its masculine or sulphureous agent, and consequently can never be transmuted into gold by Nature.

Q. How many species of gold are distinguished by the Philosophers?

A. Three sorts :–Astral Gold, Elementary Gold, and Vulgar Gold.

Q. What is astral gold?

A. Astral Gold has its centre in the sun, which communicates it by its rays to all inferior beings. It is an igneous substance, which receives a continual emanation of solar corpuscles that penetrate all things sentient, vegetable, and mineral.

Q. What do you refer to under the term Elementary Gold ?

A. This is the most pure and fixed portion of the elements, and of all that is composed of them. All sublunary beings included in the three kingdoms contain in their inmost centre a precious grain of this elementary gold.

Q. Give me some description of Vulgar Gold ?

A. It is the most beautiful metal of our acquaintance, the best that Nature can produce, as perfect as it is unalterable in itself.

Q. Of what species of gold is the Stone of the Philosophers ?

A. It is of the second species, as being the most pure portion of all the metallic elements after its purification, when it is termed living philosophical gold. A perfect equilibrium and equality of the four elements enter into the Physical Stone, and four things are indispensable for the accomplishment of the work, namely, composition, allocation, mixture, and union, which, once performed according to the rules of art, will beget the lawful Son of the Sun, and the Phoenix which eternally rises out of its own ashes.

Q. What is actually the living gold of the Philosophers?

A. It is exclusively the fire of Mercury, or that igneous virtue, contained in the radical moisture, to which it has already communicated the fixity and the nature of the sulphur, whence it has emanated, the mercurial character of the whole substance of philosophical sulphur permitting it to be alternatively termed mercury.

Q. What other name is also given by the Philosophers to their living gold ?

A. They also term it their living sulphur, and their true fire; they recognize its existence in all bodies, and there is nothing that can subsist without it.

Q. Where must we look for our living gold, our living sulphur, and our true fire ?

A. In the house of Mercury.

Q. By what is this fire nourished?

A. By the air.

Q. Give me a comparative illustration of the power of this fire ?

A. To exemplify the attraction of this interior fire, there is no better comparison than that which is derived from the thunderbolt, which originally is simply a dry, terrestrial exhalation, united to a humid vapour. By exaltation, and by assuming the igneous nature, it acts on the humidity which is inherent to it; this it attracts to itself, transmutes it into its own nature, and then rapidly precipitates itself to the earth, where it is attracted by a fixed nature which is like unto its own.

Q. What should be done by the Philosopher after he has extracted his Mercury ?

A. He should develop it from potentiality into activity.

Q. Cannot Nature perform this of herself?

A. No; because she stops short after the first sublimation, and out of the matter which is thus disposed do the metals engender.

Q. What do the Philosophers understand by their gold and silver?

A. The Philosophers apply to their Sulphur the name of Gold, and to their Mercury the name of Silver.

Q. Whence are they derived?

A. I have already stated that they are derived from a homogeneous body wherein they are found in great abundance, whence also Philosophers know how to extract both by an admirable, and entirely philosophical, process.

Q. When this operation has been duly performed, to what other point of the practice must they next apply themselves?

A. To the confection of the philosophical amalgam, which must be done with great care, but can only be accomplished after the preparation and sublimation of the Mercury.

Q. When should your matter be combined with the living gold?

A. During the period of amalgamation only, that is to say, Sulphur is introduced into it by means of the amalgamation, and thenceforth there is one substance; the process is shortened by the addition of Sulphur, while the tincture at the same time is augmented.

Q. What is contained in the centre of the radical moisture ?

A. It contains and conceals Sulphur, which is covered with a hard rind.

Q. What must be done to apply it to the Great Work?

A. It must be drawn, out of its bonds with consummate skill, and by the method of putrefaction.

Q. Does Nature, in her work in the mines, possess a menstruum which is adapted to the dissolution and liberation of this sulphur?

A. No; because there is no local movement. Could Nature, unassisted, dissolve, putrefy, and purify the metallic body, she would herself provide us with !he Physical Stone, which is Sulphur exalted and increased in virtue.

Q. Can you elucidate this doctrine by an example?

A. By an enlargement of the previous comparison of a fruit, or a seed, which, in the first place, is put into the earth for its solution, and afterwards for its multiplication. Now, the Philosopher, who is in a position to discern what is good seed, extracts it from its centre, consigns it to its proper earth, when it has been well cured and prepared, and therein he rarefies it in such a manner that its prolific virtue is increased and indefinitely multiplied.

Q. In what does the whole secret of the seed consist ?

A. In the true knowledge of its proper earth.

Q. What do you understand by the seed in the work Of the Philosophers ?

A. I understand the interior heat, or the specific spirit, which is enclosed in the humid radical, which, in other words, is the middle substance of living silver, the proper sperm of metals, which contains its own seed.

Q. How do you set free the sulphur from its bonds?

A. By putrefaction.

Q. What is the earth of minerals ?

A. It is their proper menstruum.

Q. What pains must be taken by the Philosopher to extract that part which he requires?

A. He must take great pains to eliminate the fetid vapours and impure sulphurs, after which the seed must be injected.

Q. By what indication may the Artist be assured that he is in the right road at the beginning of his work?

A. When he finds that the dissolvent and the thing dissolved are converted into one form and one matter at the period of dissolution.

Q. How many solutions do you count in the Philosophic Work?

A. There are three. The first solution is that which reduces the crude and metallic body into its elements of sulphur and of living silver; the second is that of the physical body, and the third is the solution of the mineral earth.

Q. How is the metallic body reduced by the first solution into mercury, and then into sulphur?

A. By the secret artificial fire, which is the Burning Star.

Q. How is this operation performed?

A. By extracting from the subject, in the first place, the mercury or vapour of the elements, and, after purification, by using it to liberate the sulphur from its bonds, by corruption, of which blackness is the indication.

Q. How is the second solution performed ?

A. When the physical body is resolved into the two substances previously mentioned, and has acquired the celestial nature.

Q. What is the name which is applied by Philosophers to the Matter during this period?

A, It is called their Physical Chaos, and it is, in fact, the true First Matter, a name which can hardly be applied before the conjunction of the male–which is sulphur–with the female–which is silver.

Q. To what does the third solution refer?

A. It is the humectation of the mineral earth and it is closely bound up with multiplication.

Q. What fire must be made use of in our work ?

A. That fire which is used by Nature.

Q. What is the potency of this fire?

A. It dissolves everything that is in the world, because it is the principle of all dissolution and corruption.

Q. Why is it also termed Mercury ?

A. Because it is in its nature aerial, and a most subtle vapour, which partakes at the same time of sulphur, whence it has contracted some contamination.

Q. Where is this fire concealed ?

A. It is concealed in the subject of art.

Q. Who is it that is familiar with, and can produce, this fire?

A. It is known to the wise, who can both produce it and purify it.

Q. What is the essential potency and characteristic of this fire ?

A. It is excessively dry, and is continually in motion; it seeks only to disintegrate and to educe things from potentiality into actuality; it is that, in a word, which coming upon solid places in mines, circulates in a vaporous form upon the matter, and dissolves it.

Q. How may this fire be most easily distinguished?

A. By the sulphureous excrements in which it is enveloped, and by the saline environment with which it is clothed.

Q. What must be added to this fire so as to accentuate its capacity for incineration in the feminine species?

A. On account of its extreme dryness it requires to be moistened.

Q. How many philosophical fires do you enumerate ?

A. There are in all three–the natural, the unnatural, and the contra-natural.

Q. Explain to me these three species of fires.

A. The natural fire is the masculine fire, or the chief agent; the unnatural is the feminine, which is the dissolvent of Nature, nourishing a white smoke, and assuming that form. This smoke is quickly dissipated, unless much care be exercised, and it is almost incombustible, though by philosophical sublimation it becomes corporeal and resplendent. The contra-natural fire is that which disintegrates compounds and has the power to unbind what has’ been bound very closely by Nature.

Q. Where is our matter to be found?

A. It is to be found everywhere, but it must specially be sought in metallic nature, where it is more easily available than elsewhere.

Q. What kind must be preferred before all others ?

A. The most mature, the most appropriate, and the easiest; but care, before all things, must be taken that the metallic essence shall be present, not only potentially but in actuality, and that there is, moreover, a metallic splendour.

Q. Is everything contained in this subject?

A. Yes; but Nature, at the same time, must be assisted, so that the work may be perfected and hastened, and this by the means which are familiar to the higher grades of experiment.

Q. Is this subject exceedingly precious ?

A. It is vile, and originally is without native elegance; should anyone say that it is saleable, it is the species to which they refer, but, fundamentally, it is not saleable, because it is useful in our work alone.

Q. What does our Matter contain?

A. It contains Salt, Sulphur, and Mercury.

Q. What operation is it most important to be able to perform?

A. The successive extraction of the Salt, Sulphur, and Mercury.

Q. How is that done ?

A. By sole and perfect sublimation.

Q. What is in the first place extracted ?

A. Mercury in the form of a white smoke.

Q. What follows?

A. Igneous water, or Sulphur.

Q. What then?

A. Dissolution with purified salt, in the first place volatilising that which is fixed, and afterwards fixing that which is volatile into a precious earth, which is the Vase of the Philosophers, and is wholly perfect.

Q. When must the Philosopher begin his enterprise ?

A. At the moment of daybreak, for his energy must never be relaxed.

Q. When may he take his rest?

A. When the work has come to its perfection.

Q. At what hour is the end of the work ?

A. High noon, that is to say, the moment when the Sun is in its fullest power, and the Son of the Day-Star in its most brilliant splendour.

Q. What is the pass-word of Magnesia?

A. You know whether I can or should answer:–I reserve my speech.

Q. Give me the greeting of the Philosophers.

A. Begin ; I will reply to you.

Q. Are you an apprentice Philosopher?

A. My friends, and the wise, know me.

Q. What is the age of a Philosopher ?

A. From the moment of his researches to that of his discoveries, the Philosopher does not age.

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