Category: Articles

 

Dehydration. The Nuts, Bolts and Spanners.

Introduction
Although written from the perspective of a medicinal herb grower, it must be understood that the ownership of a dehydration apparatus is of great economic benefit for the grower, irrespective of the type of crop grown.

The usage may be extended to timber, fish, fruit, vegetables flowers and herbs. The operation of such apparatus immediately removes the grower from the vagaries of the fresh market treadmill, and promotes them to the level of wholesaler from the primary production level.

Herbology, in the correct sense is the natural medicines equivalent, of the old Galenic disciplines of Pharmacognosy and Pharmacy. No natural healer may ignore the foundations of the medicines that they use, without a corresponding lack of knowledge, in terms of the efficacy or otherwise of the herbal medicine employed by that healer.

Traditionally the knowledge of such matters was in the hands of the monasteries of old. Not only did the monks provide hospital and medical services, but they grew and prepared the medicines, which they dispensed
.
Heat and Air Convection 5.1
For the purpose of this chapter, the following table should be taken as
 
‘Standard Values’ (StV)
Ambient air temperature 15° Celsius
Atmospheric pressure 101 kPa (760mm Hg)
Water temperature 12° Celsius
Herb at water temperature 12° Celsius

Two variables are required to successfully dehydrate or evaporate a substance, ie, heat and air movement.

It should be now understood that the quality and potency of dried herb is a function not only of the soil that produced the crop, but also a function of the time taken to kill and stabilize the herb. Therefore, it is of prime importance that the correct balance between heat and air movement is attained for an energy efficient and quality crop.

Air Convection 5.2
Air convection falls into two categories;

1. Natural Convection; i.e. the tendency for warm air to rise; for example the convective forces set in motion by the energy of the sun falling upon the earth.

By the early 1800’s, comparatively large scale herb production units were well established and able to supply distant as well as local markets, eg., tea, coffee, tobacco and hops. Because of the unreliability of solar energy, artificial heat was resorted to for the production of convective forces to enhance the drying process.

The drying apparatus was either a shed or a kiln; and the convected or displaced air was made good either by natural leakage through gaps and cracks or by windows and vents.

Kilns were usually employed where a two stage drying process was required, e.g., tobacco drying, where the leaf was first sweated and yellowed to destroy starches and sugars before the leaf was finally killed by dehydration.

The drying shed was favored by the medicinal and culinary herb growers, whose aim was to produce the herb in as near a whole state as possible, within the limits of available technology.

The use of drying sheds removed many of the problems associated with sun or shade drying. The sheds were usually longer than they were wide. The heat was provided by combustion stoves placed at intervals along the length of the shed.

Typical Drying Shed Figure 5.2A

Hitherto, unheated sheds or buildings were the norm; so the introduction of an independent heat source was a great improvement, which provided better quality herbs for market. Subsequent improvements in combustion control and the provision of adjustable convection vents, enabled the grower to reduce the overall drying period to between 36 and 48 hours.

However, large areas of drying surface were required and frequent handling of the herb was necessary to eliminate wet spots, with consequent damage from leaf shatter. Nonetheless, the drying shed allowed the herb grower a modicum of production planning and economic security that was previously out of reach. However, within a few short years the introduction of forced convection revolutionized the practice of dehydration so that what was previously an art, became both art and science.

2. Forced Convection, or the directed movement of air from one place to another is achieved by the use of a fan, which when coupled to circulation ducts, give the herb grower almost complete control over the drying process. The method required a further energy input, but the gains in efficiency and planning far outweigh capital and running costs. During peak harvesting periods the grower was able to undertake continuous day and night operations, irrespective of weather, with drying times greatly reduced and predictable to within an hour.

Types of Air Convection 5.3
For the purpose of dehydration, forced air circulation may be placed in three categories;

1. Air Push – one fan mounted at the air inlet.

2. Air Pull – one fan mounted at the air outlet.

3. Balanced – two fans, one at inlet and one at outlet.

The Single Fan System 5.4
In practice, single fan systems are usually employed on small cultivations of 5000 m³ or less. Fan size is determined by the size of the dehydrator, which in turn is determined by the size of the area under cultivation. For practical reasons, single fan systems are inefficient, irrespective of the area under cultivation, and are not recommended for areas of over 5000 m³.

When a fan moves air in an enclosed space a small drop in air pressure is created on the air inlet side of the fan, thus increasing air throughput. This creates increased static pressure which the fan must overcome, i.e. the air moving through the fan must start to push against the static air on its outlet side and set it in motion.

Static pressure is increased by obstructions, e.g. sharp angles in air ducts and the presence of herb and dehydrator furniture, (trolleys or racks). To overcome static pressure, an increase in velocity pressure must be supplied by increasing power input. If a fan power rating is too low, or if its blades are of the wrong type, the net result is to stir the air instead of pushing it. In such circumstance, the air pull system would be better than the air push system.

Single fan systems are unsatisfactory if air recirculation is needed and wet spots are a common occurrence.

The Balanced System 5.5
The balanced two fan system will give precise control of air flow and can be relied upon to give good results under most conditions. The extra power required is offset by increased efficiency and fuel economy.

Air Movement 5.6
Moving air has velocity or speed which, in the context of fan technology, is measured in meters per second. The actual volume of air moved is calculated in cubic meters of air per second, or, better still, for our purpose, in liters of air per second. 1000 liters has a volume of 1 m³.

Manufacturers rate their fans in accordance with the ability to deliver a given volume of air against a given static pressure. Therefore, when specifying requirements the following terms should be used; cubic meters per second (m³/s) or liters per second (l/s).

Types of Fans 5.7
The ability of a fan to ‘deliver’ is not solely a function of power. How the air is moved, i.e. stirred or pushed, is of more importance for herbal dehydration than just brute force. Fan blades, that merely stir the air are counter productive and can lead to dew point occurring in the drying chamber. Fans may be placed in the following categories;

A. Disc Fans.

B. Axial Flow Fans.

C. Centrifugal Fans.

Disc Fans are cheap to buy. Typical of the type is the portable domestic or office fan, and also the ceiling mounted type. The blade configurations are designed to stir, rather than push the air; and would have an average power rating of 250 watt. They are not suitable for dehydration purposes.

Centrifugal Fans may be encountered where there are large volumes of air required for industrial ventilation such as mines and tunnels. They are similar in operation to the domestic cross flow fan, which are usually found as a component of the so called fan heater. Second hand industrial types are easily obtained, and in terms of air flow may be considered satisfactory. The major drawback is the size and the amount of power required to run them.

The Axial Flow Fan must take pride of place for herbal dehydration purposes. They are efficient and able to deliver against the type of static pressure that is encountered in a loaded dehydrator; and if an air recirculation system is incorporated in a dehydrator, then the axial flow fan is essential. They are widely available, moderately priced, and are supplied with control gear, so that air volume may be varied at will. They are rated from 250 liters per second and upwards by convenient increments. A vehicle radiator fan is a good example and with a bit of ingenuity could be utilized for small dehydration units.

Factors in Fan Selection 5.8
In terms of energy use, static pressure costs money. Bad dehydrator design will considerably increase energy requirements. Long narrow and sharply angled bends in ducting can more than double the frictional drag, which is engendered by dehydrator loading and furniture.

The amount of air delivered by a fan will decrease with an increase of static pressure. Therefore, an increase of power is needed to overcome static pressure. The static pressure within the system will rise as a square of the velocity pressure, this occurs because the air gets compressed on the outlet side of the fan, consequently, a large input of energy is needed to produce a modest increase in velocity.

You will now understand why two fans are better than one, and in the right circumstance will use less power than a single fan system. When purchasing fans it would be wise to increase your estimated air volume requirements by 50%. The aerodynamics of a given fan may suit your requirements, but thought must be given to its operating environment.

Remember the drying ratios for herbal material, e.g. 1 tonne of fresh herb contains around 750 kg/liters of water. In addition to the fans internally generated heat, it must pass heated air at up to 60°C on a continuous basis. The outlet fan will also need to cope with atmospheric conditions; so it is essential that the supplier be given full details of expected operating conditions. If you fail to do that, and there are subsequent problems, you may forfeit guarantee or consumer protection rights.

Do not forget that ‘cheapest’ may turn out to be the most expensive. The means of calculating the air volume requirements for a dehydrator will be dealt with later on in the text.

The Production of Heated Air 5.9
The production of heated air is a relatively simple matter and commercial systems of many types are widely available.Typical of the portable variety is the ‘hot air blower’, which is commonly found in the form of domestic fan heaters. For obvious reasons, they are not suitable for the dehydration of fresh herb.

However, they may serve the purpose of a cabinet type conditioning dryer. Such dryers are used to condition previously dried herb, which has been in storage. The herb will be at equilibrium moisture; usually 10 to 12% and will need to be conditioned to around 8% moisture for onward processing. The maximum drying chamber is around 2 m³, and will hold around 15 kg of dried herb, ie., 90 grams of moisture to be removed.

Industrial size hot air blowers are commonly used as space heaters in workshops and are often found in horticultural operations, eg., for the heating of tunnel houses for out of season crops. The industrial versions are dual power units, i.e. electricity is used for ignition and operation of the fan blower, whilst the combustion is provided by a fossil fuel such as kerosene or gas. The noxious and carcinogenic combustion products are moisture laden, and are deposited onto the growing or drying crops.

The situation is analogous to venting a vehicle exhaust into an enclosed space and is not an acceptable procedure for herbal dehydration. The common alternative is to combust a fuel of choice within an enclosed chamber. The hot gas is then led away by means of a flue pipe and vented to the atmosphere, (see drying shed), the stove and flue pipes then radiate heat energy to the ambient air.

Fuel Energy politics 5.10
Queen Beatrix, in her 1988 Christmas broadcast to the people of Holland, had this to say;

“The Earth is slowly dying, and the inconceivable,the end of life itself, is actually becoming conceivable. 
We have become a threat to our planet”.

To simply say that “they must do something”, is to suffer from a crisis of perception, because ‘they’, is ‘us’, as individuals. Each of us must exercise the options that are open to us if we wish to weather the global climate change process.

To quote Buckminster Fuller, “If you are not part of the solution, then you are part of the problem”.

We already have the alternative and appropriate energy solutions; what is needed is that we loosen the grip that the corporate energy providers have upon us, and select in a conscious and responsible manner the energy appropriate to need. I am not advocating hair shirts and flagellation, because if you need a cell phone, then it is not appropriate to launch your own satellite, or lay your own fibre optic cable. If we are to have any degree of freedom then the individual must be able to select from the menu what is ‘appropriate’ to need, without being dictated to.

High and Low Grade Energy 5.11
The definition of high and low grade energy is somewhat hazy. It is normally taken to mean; ‘that threshold, below which a given process cannot take place; and that threshold above which a given process can take place’; therefore, the threshold will depend upon the resources available. A passive solar system in the terms of industrial production is low grade energy. However, with people and land, low grade energy can be converted to a sustainable high energy catalyst.

Figure 5.11A

To reach this level you start from where you are and tap into available corporate energy supplies, and slowly break the hold that they have on you.

Combustion and Fuel Values 5.12
Combustion or burning, is a chemical process involving carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen reacts with the fuel and produces combustion products, some of which contribute to ozone layer damage. The reaction is sensed as heat and light.

Combustibles may be solid, liquid or gaseous; and the fuel energy values that follow should be read as mean global values, because the hydrocarbon chemical content of fossil fuels, eg,. coal, oil or gas, vary according to the geographical source. The same situation applies to bio-mass fuels, eg., wood or ethanol.

Table 5.12A

Fuel Type	Source	State	Energy kJ/kg.
Carbon	Elemental	Solid	33000
Coal	Fossil	Solid	30000
Coke	Coal	Solid	28000
Fuel Oil	Fossil	Liquid	42000
Kerosene	Oil	Liquid	45000
Petrol	Oil	Liquid	45000
Coal Gas	Coal	Gaseous	20000
Methane	Bio.	Gaseous	42000
Natural Gas	Oil	Gaseous	38000
Charcoal	Bio.	Solid	33000
Ethanol	Bio.	Liquid	28000
Wood	Bio.	Solid	20000
Solar Energy	Sun	Radiant	1.025 kW/m2

The Table may be read in many different ways, and the overall interpretation depends on which bias is used, e.g. cost per kg related to energy values; or cost per kg related to global values; or cost per kg related to local availability.

However, for many people there is no luxury of choice for an energy source except, take it or leave it. Those of us who live in the affluent nations, have a choice which is only limited by personal financial constraints. Therefore, it is up to each of us to accept and take up the challenge to create a sustainable future for our children. Sustainable is the key.

Solar Energy 5.13
Sun worship was the crowning facet of many cultures and it needs no great breadth of imagination to understand why. All substance known to mankind are nothing more, or nothing less, than solar matter; either from our own sun or more distant ones.

Everything is energy and the primary difference between one substance and another, at a sub-atomic level is the degree of condensation of the solar matter. Helio-technology is not new, it has been with us for thousands of years in one form or another; as a science it is around 110 years old.

Solar energy is the sub-strata of all other energy forms; and when we combust a fuel, we release stored solar energy. The energy may be ancient, as in fossil fuels which are finite. Old, as in mature stands of forest, or recent, as in fast growing softwood trees, methane or ethanol.

So sustainability depends on what level we tap into the energy tree, and how efficient our conversion systems are, and most important, how reliable they are. Accordingly, if we tap into the energy tree at the solar, hydro or wind levels, then a storage system is necessary. Remember that wind and water are manifestations of solar radiation.

The Solar Constant 5.14
Solar radiation is not constant; it is in a state of flux. However, for the purpose of scientific calculation, it has been given a mean value, which is called the Solar Constant. The constant is a measure of energy radiated from the sun, per unit of area, perpendicular to the suns rays, as measured at the outer limits of the earths atmosphere, and corresponds to the following measurement;

1.360 kW/m².

The value of the 1.025 kW/m², which is given in Table 5.12A, is the mean value of the solar radiation upon the earths surface from the outer atmosphere and a sky vault clear of cloud. The solar constant does not represent the amount of energy available to an earthbound collector. The amount collected would depend on a combination of variables;

1. Collector latitude and angle.

2. Efficiency of the collector.

3. Hours of sunlight and seasonal variations.

4. The amount of pollution and cloud cover.

Solar collectors that track the sun across the sky are available; but there are limiting factors such as size and cost, therefore, for practical and economic reasons, most collectors are fixed azimuth and angle. The azimuth is meridian, and the angle between 45° and 60° according to latitude.

Figure 5.14A shows the theoretical intensity of solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface, with corrections for altitude of the collector. Practical experimentation, and allowing for the variables, indicates that a 30% reduction of the figures derived would be more accurate. The chart may be applied North or South of the equator.

Figure 5.14A

Remember that the chart depicts the suns rays falling onto a flat horizontal surface. Accordingly, as the surface rises in altitude, then the sun angle is being decreased, which increases the distance that the radiation had to travel, however, the increasing clarity of the atmosphere produces solar gain.

Therefore, irrespective of the altitude, the angle of a solar collector must match as near as possible the solar altitude. For a fixed collector, the best angle is the average sun angle for a 12 month period, as logged in your region.

Solar Energy as Sole Heat Source 5.15
It may be readily understood from Figure 5.14A, that for practical reasons, on a small scale, solar energy, unless fed through a conversion system, is low grade energy. It is excellent for water or space heating in living accommodation, workshops or store rooms.

Conversion Systems 5.16
There are many sophisticated conversion systems, most of which are beyond the tooling and economic capacity of the average person. (For example, focusing collectors in conjunction with various forms of heat exchangers, or the high technology photo-voltaic panels with storage batteries and current converters.) From the ‘do-it-yourself’ angle there are wind, hydro and bio-gas converters, so the options open are many. However, caution is required, because the technology you choose can free you or enslave you. It can accelerate or help the planet to maintain equilibrium.

Conversion Systems and Global Warming 5.17
In May 1990, the UN IPCC. Working group on global warming, completed a detailed doomsday report; the figures given in this section are abstracted from that report.

To produce high grade energy a conversion system is essential, and all energy conversion systems contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. The greenhouse gases are essential to the life of the planet, but it is all a question of balance, and because of the overwhelming complexity of the planetary cycles, we do not know where the critical balance point is.

The increasing incidence of freak weather conditions are the first symptoms of fever. If the planet starts to sweat and shiver, then our support structures, i.e. food, water, sewage, power, medical care, and communications will collapse Choose your conversion and conservation wisely.

Table 5.17A

Greenhouse Gas	Main Source	Rate of Increase	% of Total
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)	Fossil fuel burning, Deforestation	0.5 % per year	55%
Chlorofluorocarbons	Industrial & domestic Refrigerants	4 % per year	24%
Methane (CH4)	Wetlands, rice paddies & animal Flatulence	0.9 % per year	15%
Nitrous oxide (N2O)	Biomass burning & fossil fuel combustion	0.8 % per Year	6%

In 1989, the United States Department of Energy issued the data upon which the following Table is based.
The figures represent metric tonnes of CO₂ emitted per GW/hour (Giga Watt), i.e., one thousand million watts.

Table 5.17B

Conversion  Technology	Extraction Technology	Construction Technology	Actual Conversion	Total per G/W hour.
Coal Fired	1	1	962	964
Oil Fired	?	?	726	726 ++
Gas Fired	?	?	484	484 ++
Geothermal	N/A	3.7	300.3	340
Hydro power	N/A	10	N/A	10
Wind	N/A	7.4	N/A	7.4
Photo voltaic	N/A	5.4	N/A	5.4
Solar Thermal	N/A	3.6	N/A	3.6
Wood on a basis of sustainable harvest.	Minus 1509.1	2.9	1346.3	Minus 159.9

Dehydration and Solar Energy 5.18
Solar energy, as a stand alone system for herbal dehydration, presents several problems;

1. Solar radiation received on a daily basis is not predictable with any degree of accuracy.

2. Unless some form of a heat storage device, that can provide sustained release, is included in a dehydrator that operates on solar energy, then it is possible that dew point will occur during the nocturnal hours.

3. Under operational conditions, a solar dehydrator with natural convection, at a latitude of 36° South, could not better a two day drying period during the summer months. The higher the humidity the longer the process will take.

4. The operator has no effective control over the process.

The problems may be summarized as lack of quality and production efficiency. The degree of catabolism that occurs in the drying herb is a function of time.

Generally, extended drying times, are detrimental to quality. The time of harvest is not under the growers control. An estimate of when the crop is at peak condition can be made, thereafter, around three days either side of that date, in which to harvest and process, to obtain a quality crop.

A cultivation of 0.25 ha would yield on average 2000 kg of fresh herb. A 1 x 1 metre drying tray will hold on average 3.5 kg of chopped fresh herb, therefore with a seasonal average drying period of 3 days, 300 m² of drying space would be required if losses were not to occur. The energy needed to dehydrate 2000 kg of fresh herb in a 3 x 8 hour day, approximates 42 kW/hr i.e. the solar air panel would need to be 42 m² in size, and this is on the assumption of 24 hours of brilliant sunshine per day. If the herb were to be dried in the correct manner then a solar air panel would need to be circa 160 m² in size.

Accordingly solar energy as a stand alone system for herbal dehydration may be seen as ‘right idea’ but ‘inadequate technology. In arid regions where the availability of bio-fuels is a problem, then the matter of dew point in the dehydrator during the hours of darkness, may be addressed by the provision of a mud brick or concrete block apron, to act as a heat storage device for a slow sustained release of heat to the dehydrator during the hours of darkness.

Biomass Conversion to Energy 5.19

Energy Out ÷ Energy In = Efficiency %

A deciduous tree is a sublime statement at any level of approach. As a solar tracking and conversion system it has no peer. The leaves represent many thousands of individual solar trackers and diffuse radiation scavengers, i.e. a solar panel that covers hundreds of square meters with infinite combinations for solar altitude and azimuth. It switches off when net energy gain reaches zero, and switches on again when energy levels are at break even.

The earth’s landmass represents about 30% of the total area of the planet. Trees and plants in dry mass terms, produce about 115 thousand million tons of biomass, of which, we harvest about 1.2 billion tons for food. Figures of that magnitude are meaningless unless they are reduced to human scale. The current practice of clear felling forests, for no other reason than shareholders short term gain, only serves to illustrate the insanity of an economic system founded on usury. Such practices threaten the long term viability of the planet to sustain life.

Table 5.19A

Nett Ecosystem Productivity in g/m²/year and its relationship to precipitation.

Eco-System	Average
Cultivated Land	650 gm
Desert and Scrub	90 gm
Temp. Deciduous Forest	1200 gm
Temp. Evergreen Forest	1300 gm
Tropical Rain Forest	2200 gm

Given some thought, it will be understood that we have the basis for sustainable high grade energy production. A 1 hA wood-lot    harvested on a sustainable basis, would produce around 8 m³ of solid timber per year. 1m³ of mixed timber would average 500kg in weight. The calorific value of wood averages 20,000 kJ/kg (table 5.12A) which equates to 10⁶ kJ/m³.

 

 

 

That is sufficient energy to dehydrate 30 tonnes of fresh herb. When timber is burnt to provide high grade energy, in addition to the heat energy produced, there, is also a large volume of various gases released. The actual amount produced, per kg of wood, depends on the efficiency of the burner, that means more heat, less gas, or less heat, more gas.

The gas contains valuable by products that may be recovered by using home workshop technology. For example, tar and creosote, which are a timber preservatives. Current timber preservative methods and substances are destructive of the biosphere.

Biomass may be converted to ethanol by fermentation and distillation. The alcohol may then be used as fuel and for the solvent extraction of medicinal herbs. The technology and methods will be covered in Module 6.

 

Components of a Dehydrator 5.20
The requirements of dehydration are simple;

1. Drying Chamber.

2. Air Heating Device.

3. Air Moving Device.

These basic components may be combined in various ways. The drying methods described here may be adapted to match cultivations from 100 m² to 4 ha. Such apparatus may also be fabricated and moved from site to site.

Fig 5.20A The Vertical Stack

 

The vertical or gravity stack is usually employed as a conditioning dryer.

In field conditions it has severe ergonomic and capacity problems and is not recommended for a cultivation in excess of 400 m².

 

 

 

 

Fig 5.20B The Horizontal Stack.

The horizontal stack may operate as a single or twin fan dryer depending on its size The heater and plenum may be situated according to the drying method employed.

Ergonomically suitable for up to 10,000m².

 

Fig 5.20C. The Tunnel Dryer

The tunnel dryer was a development of the horizontal stack .It may be scaled to meet the needs of cultivations ranging from 1 to 5 ha.

Basically it is a tunnel, through which hot air is blown. The herbal material is progressed through on trayed trolleys. This type of dryer will meet all the requirements. It may be used for parallel and counter flow drying, and the air may be re circulated as needed.
 

Air Heating Components 5.21
Herbal material should, under no circumstances, be exposed to direct radiation as a method of drying. Air must be heated first and then passed to the drying chamber. This is done by first passing the air across a heat radiating surface. The most convenient method is to incorporate a heating device into the heat plenum as shown below.

Fig. 5.21A

Considerable savings in energy may be achieved by including a solar air heating panel as the air inlet for the heat plenum.

Fig 5.21B The Hybrid System

The solar panel may be mounted to suit, i.e. wall, roof or free standing. If flexible ducting is used, the panel angle can be adjusted to match the seasonal solar angle; that would give a significant heat gain. Depending on the air flow through the panel, a temperature boost in the range of 5° to 15°C could be expected. Air flow through the panel can be modified by inserting baffles and introducing adjustable air vents to the heat plenum.

Chapter 5 Part 2.

Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 4 Part 3

Macroscopic and Microscopic Quantities. 4.24
Physics may be called the wholistic science, the science of everything, and from which, every other branch of science must draw sustenance.

Physics seeks to link each component of the known universe; and further to link the macroscopic quantities and properties of each component to its microscopic counterpart. It was by employing microscopic or reductionist methods, that physics was able to demonstrate the quintessential unity of the macrocosm, i.e. the Hermetic viewpoint.

The intellectual journey from concept to demonstration was a tour de force of human reasoning power, from which stream a multitude of benefits.

The concept of time allows us to make sense of the profusion of natural phenomena that surrounds us. It is fundamental to all of our activities, and the greatest degree of accuracy is obtained, by measuring microscopic quantities. Example, the S.I. Unit for time is the ‘second’ (s).

An instrument to measure time is the clock. Around the year 1900, the best degree of accuracy that we possessed was a clock that only lost 1 second every three months, ie, an accuracy of 0.01 of a second. 103 years later we are able to measure time with the so called atomic clock, whereby time is measured against the vibratory rate of the cesium atom (see Periodic Table. Atomic number 55), which only gains 1 second in 27,000 years, an accuracy of 0.0000001 of a second.

For the purpose of dehydration we need to work with the macroscopic concepts of time , temperature, pressure, volume and energy; therefore, it is an aid to the understanding of the base units used, if it is borne in mind that each base unit is linked to the microscopic quantity and property.

Work 4.25
Pushing a stalled vehicle in order to start it is a common sight. The person pushing the vehicle is applying force, to make the vehicle move, ie, they are doing the work.

The amount of work done is measured by multiplying force, by the distance through which it travels.

The unit of force is the Newton (N). A unit of work is formed from the units of force and distance, the unit is the Newton /metre, which is called the Joule. (J).

Power 4.26
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done. The S.I. Unit for power is the Watt (W). One watt equals 1 joule per second (1 J /s), therefore, 1W is the force of 1 Newton moving through a distance of one metre in 1 second. (N/m/s).

Energy 4.27
Anything which is able to do work contains potential or stored energy, eg, a piece of coal is potential heat which is released when it is burnt; in other words, the energy is released by initiating a non reversible chemical change (see section 5-8).

Energy can be classified into 3 types, which are;

(1) Potential energy, eg, a piece of wood, an electrical battery or water stored behind a hydro-electric dam.

(2) Heat energy (refer. Section 4.10) is connected to the vibratory rate of atoms and molecules, therefore, heat energy is a potential of all matter, e.g. burning of fossil fuels.

(3) Kinetic energy is the potential energy of a body in motion, eg, the arm drives the cue, which strikes the cue ball, which strikes the pool or snooker ball. At each point of impact, the velocity or potential energy, is converted to kinetic energy, which transfers, in part to the object struck, i.e. a kinetic exchange occurs.

A more relevant example would be that of warm dry air passing through a dehydrator; on entering it contains more heat and less moisture. Heat is taken up by the herb, which releases moisture to the air. Therefore, the air on leaving contains less heat and more moisture, than on entry. A kinetic change has occurred.

Thermodynamics 4.28
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy.

The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created or destroyed, but is convertible from 1 form to another e.g. heat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible, therefore 1 joule of work equals 1 joule of heat. However, during the process of conversion there are losses of energy, due to inefficiencies in the system of conversion.

The energy is not really lost but has been converted to a form that is not useable, eg, a vehicle losses much heat energy through its hot exhaust gas. The efficiency of any conversion system may be known by the following expression;

Output ÷ Input = efficiency

Example; Output 1 ÷ Input 2 = 0.5 efficiency.

A conversion system that can better a 50% efficiency rate is exceptional rather than the norm. Therefore, according to the thermodynamic theory of entropy, the unusable energy is dissipated; creating an increasing molecular disorder, which will eventually lead to the heat death of the universe; in that heat moves only from hot to cold, and eventually there will be temperature equilibrium throughout the universe.

The first and second laws of the thermodynamics are subject to much controversy *. With tongue in cheek we may say, ” There is some pressure on the matter”. For our purpose the situation can be summed up, by Michael Flanders and Donald Swann’s rendition of a little ditty;

You cant pass heat from a cooler to a hotter. Try it if you like, you’d far better notter, cause the cold in the cooler will get hotter as a ruler, cos the hotter bodies heat will pass to the cooler. Oh you cant pass heat from a cooler to a hotter. Try it if you like, you’d only look a fooler. Cold in the cooler will get hotter as a ruler, that is a physical law. Heat is work and work’s a curse and all the heat in the universe is gonna cool down because it cant increase, there’ll be no more work and perfect peace;

Really ? Yeah, that’s entropy man!

‘all because of the second law of thermodynamics’

At the Drop of Another hat’ E.M.I. Records 1964

*

The second law of thermodynamics contradicts the findings of cosmology and evolution. This of course presents a problem for Science which has not been properly addressed, and never more so in the field of medicine and the periodic table. 

“As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, and as far as they are certain,
they do not refer to reality”.
Albert Einstein

Heat and Temperature 4.29
There is a tendency to talk of heat and temperature as though they were one and the same thing; there is however, a critical difference. If we refer back to the theory of matter, then the following statements may be put in context;

A. Temperature is a measure of the vibratory speed of an atom.

                                        B. Heat is the vibratory speed of an atom multiplied by the mass of atoms.

Therefore 2 litres of water at 25°C contains more heat than 1 litre of water at 25°C.

Heat Energy 4.30
Units of heat are measured in Joules; and when working on macroscopic quantities, it is usual to work in kilo-Joules per unit of mass ie kJ/kg.

Heat energy can be a difficult concept to understand; for unlike matter it cannot be seen or held, however, its effects can be felt.

For example, assume that we have 1 kg each, of Ethyl alcohol, olive oil and distilled water, at a temperature of 25°C.

To each one we add 5 k/J of heat energy, then from the initial starting temperature, the ethyl alcohol would register 27.04°C, a rise of just over 2°C. The olive oil would register 27.5°C and the water 26.19°C.

If we applied the same conditions to a block of copper, the temperature would register 37.56°C, a rise of 12.56°C. Quite clearly different substances vary greatly in their temperature reaction to heat energy. The reason is because of the difference in density or atomic mass of the different substances (see Periodic Table), therefore, it is not possible to use temperature as a measure of heat without first specifying the substance which is being heated.

Specific Heat Capacity 4.31
1 litre of water at 4°C weighs 1 kg and has a volume of 1 cubic decimetre (1000 cubic centimetre), 1dm³ of copper weighs 8.79kg.

Now although the volume is the same, there is a big difference in mass, therefore, the copper and water will require different amounts of heat energy to lift the temperature by 1°C.

Each substance has its own specific heat capacity which is measured in kJ/kg/°C which is the amount of heat energy needed per kilogram of substance to raise the temperature by 1°C.

The term specific heat capacity is a misnomer, because it implies that a substance will only hold a certain level of heat; whereas in fact, the S.H.C. differs with pressure and temperature, and by pouring heat energy into a substance, we can produce the following effects;

● An increase in temperature (per kJ/kg °C)

● Expansion of volume (size)

● A change in physical state (solid, liquid, vapour)

● A chemical change (burnt toast)

                                        ● A change in the electrical properties of the substance.

The specific heats of different substances were arrived at experimentally. In the terms of the old heat units, the specific heat of water was unity or 1.

The specific heat capacity of the other substances were then related to water, the quantity given was a ratio, and was not a heat unit.

Under the S.I. the quantities are heat units related to the mass, and not a ratio related to water.

Energy in whatever form costs money, therefore, unit operations whether laboratory or field scale, must be taken into the economic costings if any degree of accuracy is to be obtained. You must know the amount of heat required to bring a dehydrator, evaporator or distilling unit up to working temperature, and then the amount of heat required to carry out the process.

Specific heat capacities for solids will vary according to temperature. Specific heat capacities for gas and liquids will vary according to temperature and pressure. The values which are given in Table 4.31A, are average values which, for all practical purposes, may be taken as constants.

Density and Relative Density 4.32
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit of volume, e.g. kg/m³, kg/dm³, or g/cm³.

The density of water is greatest at 4°C. At that temperature, 1000 litres or kilograms has a volume of 1 cubic metre or 1000kg/m³. Therefore, it follows that 1 gram has a volume of 1 cubic centimetre at that temperature.

The specific heat values are expressed as kJ/kg, therefore, if you know the weight of a dehydrator or distillation unit then it is simple to calculate its S.H.C.

The relative density of a substance is a ratio of distilled water at 4°C under pressure of 1 atmosphere. The densities of selected substances are given with the S.H.C. values in Table 4.31A.

SHC and Densities. Table 4.31A

STP = Standard temperature and pressure. STP = 0°C at 101 kPa. (Freezing point at sea level)

The subject of pressure will be dealt with later in the text.

Heat Tranfer 4.33
In section 4.28, Michael Flanders and Donald Swann in their rendition of the 2^nd Law of Thermodynamics, inform us that, ‘you can pass heat from a cooler to a hotter’; in other words, heat always flows from a hot substance to a cooler substance. Heat will continue to slide down the temperature gradient between hot and cold until equilibrium or equal temperature exists between the two substances.

This phenomenon is very useful because we can move heat energy from one place to another by arranging a series of temperature slides. Heat can be transferred in three ways;

1. By Conduction. E.g. we can go to bed in a warm house and wake up to a cold house. The heat has diffused through the walls and dissipated into cold night air, there has been a temperature slide between the house, and the atmosphere. We use that principle when warm air is passed across cold herb.

2. By Convection. This method of heat transfer is achieved by using a gas or a liquid as a vehicle for the heat energy, e.g. a domestic fan heater draws air across an electrically heated element. Heat is transferred to the cool air, which becomes warm, and is then blown into the room. We use that principle when air is heated for dehydration purposes. The use of liquids for heat transfer finds many uses, for instance, water or steam radiators, or domestic refrigerator.

3. By Radiation. Unlike conducted or convected heat, radiated heat may pass through a vacuum. It does so as a wave motion which is similar to that of radio or light waves. Radiant heat obeys the same physical laws that govern light. That fact is the core principle of Helio-technology. That will be expanded when solar energy is discussed.

Thermometers and Temperature 4.34
A thermometer (thermo- meter) is an instrument that utilises the thermometric properties of expansion and contraction, to measure a temperature change to a substance. The most common type is one that uses the expansion and contraction of a liquid to measure the heat intensity of a substance.

Water is not suitable because it freezes at 0°C. The liquid chosen must have a lower freezing point than water, eg, alcohol and mercury (Hg).

There are 2 fixed points against which temperature scales may be calibrated, ie, the freezing and boiling points of water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. (The subject of pressure will be covered later in the text) If the pressure on water is over 1 atmosphere, the boiling point will be raised and the freezing point lowered,. below 1 atmosphere, the boiling point is lowered and freezing point raised.

Temperature Scales 4.35
In the past, there were a variety of temperature scales in use in different parts of the world, most of which are now abandoned. There are now three international scales recognised by science and technology, they are;

1. The Celsius Scale, which was formerly called ‘Centigrade’. This is the scale that is used for most practical purposes, and the fixed points are determined at 1 standard atmosphere, i.e. 101.325 kPa. (Sea level).

The lower fixed point is the fusion or freezing point of water, i.e. 0°C. The higher fixed point is the boiling point (bp) of water, i.e. 100°C. The interval between the 2 points is divided into 100 divisions, each one representing 1°C.

2. The Thermodynamic or Kelvin Scale, This is the fundamental scale to which all temperatures are finally referred. The scale is not allied to any substance, and to avoid confusion the term ‘degree’ is not used, instead the term Kelvin is used, e.g. 373K = 100°C. To give a scale a numerical basis, the scale is compared to the ‘Triple Point of Water’ (tp). The triple point of water is the equilibrium point between ice, water and water vapour, i.e. 0°Celsius.

That point on the Kelvin scale is 273.15K or 273K for practical purposes. To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273, e.g. 100°C + 273 = 373K. To convert from Kelvin to Celsius, subtract 273 e.g. 373K – 273 = 100°C. The Thermodynamic or Kelvin scale postulates an absolute zero, or 0K, and because the Kelvin and Celsius use the same divisions, 0K = 273°C.

3. The International Practical Temperature Scale, or the IPTS was legally adopted to solve practical problems that were involved with calibration of industrial and scientific instruments that are used in the areas of cryogenics (very low temperatures), or in pyrogenic work such as may be involved with thermo-nuclear reactors or heat shields for space craft.

The scale is in °C, and for practical purposes can be considered identical with the Kelvin scale. There are various fixed points which, for our purpose are irrelevant, but to convey the idea, one is based on the fusion or melting point of gold, i.e. 1064.43°C, and another on the boiling point of oxygen, ie, -182.962°C.

Comparison of Temperature Scales Table 4.35A

Water	Kelvin	Celsius	Fahrenheit
Boiling point	373K	100°C	212°F
Standard point	293K	20°C	68°F
Triple point	273K	0°C	32°F
Absolute zero	0K	– 273°C	– 460°F

To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius; Subtract 32°F, multiply the answer by 5, then divide by 9 = °C

Example, 212°F – 32 = 180 x 5 = 900 ÷ 9 = 100°C.

Energy and Change of State 4.36
Figure 4.11A is a representation of 3 of the states of matter, ie, Solid, Liquid and Vapour; each particle represents a molecule. In the solid the molecules are tightly bonded by electro-chemical force. In the liquid state the bonds have been stretched and weakened, which allows for a certain degree of movement. The vaporous state shows that the molecules have broken free from the electro-chemical energy that bound them together.

In order to bring about a change of state in water molecules, sufficient force, or heat energy, must be applied to the body of water to weaken or break the electro-chemical bonds that bind the molecules together. The state of a substance depends partly on temperature and partly on pressure.

Sensible Heat 4.37
If we take a pan of cold water and place a thermometer in it, the temperature of the water may be seen from the scale; remember that, we are not measuring the amount of heat in the water, but the heat intensity of the water.

If we then place the pan of water on a heat source and observe the thermometer, it will become obvious that although we are pouring heat energy into the water, the temperature does not change.

However, as we continue to observe, after a period of time the temperature will start a steady climb, so that we can see the effect of the heat energy. Heat that brings about an observable change in the temperature is called sensible heat.

The time lag between the heat poured in, and the initial temperature rise will vary from substance to substance, i.e. the differing specific heat capacities, and also the rate at which the heat is poured in, and the starting temperature.

Heat and Change of State 4.38
The point at which a solid will change to a liquid or a liquid to a solid, e.g. the freezing or melting of a ice cube, is known as the temperature of melting or the temperature of fusion.

The point at which a liquid turns to vapour is the temperature at which the substance will boil and vaporise.

When a substance is undergoing a change of state the temperature will remain steady until the change of state is complete. (Refer to Section 4.12). In the past the heat that was being added or taken away from a substance without a change in temperature was called latent heat.

The amount of heat required to bring about fusion or vaporisation in any substance is different, so there was a latent heat of fusion and a latent heat of vaporisation.

Today latent heat is called ‘Enthalpy’, therefore, there is enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of evaporation of a substance.

For our purpose, we will take the terms of evaporation and vaporisation to be synonymous; but it must be borne in mind that water will evaporate at all temperatures above freezing. The relationship between sensible heat and enthalpy heat may be understood by studying the chart in Figure 4.38A.

Enthalpy. Temperature. Change of State Fig. 4.38A

The following values are for fresh water at 101 kPa (Sea level)

Specific enthalpy of fusion ( Ice ) ———— 335 kJ/kg

Specific heat of water ———————– 4.2 kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy, vapourisation of steam —- 2260 kJ/kg

The chart represents 1kg of ice through to vapourisation.

Explanation of the chart.

Point A to B = 335kJ of heat added with no rise in temperature.

Point B to C = Ice melting with no rise in temperature.

Point C to D = Water temperature rising by 1°C for every 4.2kJ/kg

Point D to E = 2260 kJ/kg of heat added without a rise in temperature to vapourise the water

C = Melting point. A. B. C = Latent or hidden heat

D = Boiling point. C. D. = Sensible heat (temperature rise)

E = Vapour point D. E. = Latent heat

Atmospheric Pressure 4.39
The concept of pressure is of importance in many areas of herbology, as it relates to unit operations. For example, pressure or lack of it, determines the fusion or vaporisation point of a substance; also we make use of the pressure set up by a fan to move air in the unit operation of dehydration.

Fish live in an ocean of water. Most people will understand water (hydrostatic) pressure, i.e. the deeper one descends, the greater the pressure on the body, with the ear drums being particularly sensitive.

Terrestrial creatures live at the bottom of an ocean of air and the pressure is considerable. Pressure may be defined as a force per unit area on an object, e.g. 1 atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1.03 kg/cm². The average adult has a surface area of 19,500 cm², i.e. the sum of the pressure on the body exceeds 19 tonnes, or the equivalent of a 10 metre depth of water.

Vapour Pressure 4.40
If we take a container of cold water and bring it to the boil, it will be seen that small bubbles begin to form on the inside of the container.

As we continue to pour heat energy into the water, the vapour bubbles become larger and more numerous. The water that surrounds a bubble starts to vaporise into the bubble, which expands, the expansion exerts a vapour pressure. Many text books generalise by stating that a liquid will boil when the vapour pressure is at equilibrium with the pressure upon its surface.

A discussion of the gas laws is inappropriate for this text, but if you think about it, a more accurate definition would be , that water will boil when the vapour pressure of the bubbles reaches equilibrium with the water, or hydrostatic pressure. That definition makes it easier to understand how water can evaporate from a free surface at all temperatures above freezing.

The Effect of Increased Pressure 4.41
If we take a sealed vessel of water and pump air into it, there will be an increase of air pressure on the surface of the water. That makes it more difficult for the water molecules to escape as vapour from the water surface, and will also increase the hydrostatic pressure.

Therefore, a greater amount of heat energy will be required to enable the vapour pressure to overcome the increased pressure upon it. Logically, the increase in heat energy will cause an increase in the temperature; therefore, the boiling point of a liquid will rise with an increase in pressure.

Refer again to Figure 4.38A and place a ruler along the ‘C’, ‘D’ line so that the ruler intersects the 160° temperature line. The line ‘D’, ‘E’ will then be at a higher point on the graph, i.e. the boiling and vapour points have been increased.

The Effect of Reduced Pressure 4.42
If we now take the same vessel of water and attach a vacuum pump to it and reduce the air pressure to a point below atmospheric, we will also reduce the hydrostatic pressure. The reduced atmospheric pressure enables water molecules to leave the water surface more readily, in other words the vapour pressure is higher than the overlying air pressure.

The reduced hydrostatic pressure will enable the water to boil at a temperature below 100° C. The point of equilibrium where the number of water molecules escaping balances the number of molecules condensing, is known as the vapour pressure of the liquid, or to be precise, ‘ the equilibrium vapour pressure’.

This phenomenon is used to advantage by the Herbologist. Herb metabolites are thermo labile, i.e. damaged by heat; but by operating on the body of the herb under reduced pressure the Herbologist is enabled to extract metabolites without damage.

Chapter 4 part 4

 

Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

 

 

Volatile Oils of Australia.
Part 2

Compiled and edited by Ivor Hughes.

21. Eucalyptus obliqua, I, Herit., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 204.
Variously called ” Stringybark,” ” Messmate” ” Black Box,” and ” Ironbark Box.” (For synonyms, see “Timbers.”)
The essential oil is reddish-yellow, of mild odour, and bitter taste. Sp. gr., 0.899; boiling point, 171° to 195°; it becomes turbid at 18°. (Wittstein and Mueller.)
Southern coast districts of New South Wales, but chiefly in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.

22. Eucalyptus Odorata, Behr., (Syn. E: porosa, Miq.; E. cajuputea, IMiq.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 215.
Variously called ” Peppermint Box” and ” Red Gum.”
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs of twigs of this tree (comprising, perhaps, 500 lbs. of leaves) yielded 112 ½ ozs. of essential oil. Bosisto (Trans. R.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4), however, gives the following figures :— 100 lbs. of leaves from trees growing on elevated spots yielded 4 oz. 13 drs. of oil, of specific gravity 922, while the same quantity of leaves from trees growing on low, swampy lands, yielded only 5½ drs. of oil of specific gravity .899. It is pale-yellowish, with a greenish tinge, and an aromatic, somewhat camphoraceous smell. It boils between 157° and 199°.
South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales.

23. Eucalyptus oleosa, F.v.M., (Syn. E. socialis, F.v.M.; E. turbinata, F.v.M., et Behr.j; N.O., Myrtaceaj, B.Fl., iii., 248.
A ” Mallee.”
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs. of the foliage of this tree (of which perhaps half the weight consisted of branchlets) yielded 62½ oz. of oil (Mr. Bosisto’s figures are 20 oz. of oil from 100 lbs. of the green leaves and branchlets), of 911 specific gravity, at 70° F., boiling at 341° F., and of rather a pleasant mint-like and camphoraceous odour, and yellowish colour. (Later experiments give the specific gravity at .904.) These determinations were made by Dr. Gladstone. The rotatory power was determined for a column of liquid 10 inches long. (Watts Diet, of Chem.)
Western and South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

24. Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, F.v.M., Fragm., xi.
The fresh leaves yield .06 per cent, of an essential oil, having a specific gravity of .915. (Staiger.) The odour of this oil is described as peculiar, allied to citronelle, but differing from it. It has been suggested as a soap-perfume.
Near Brisbane, and Northern New South Wales.

25. Eucalyptus populifolia, Hook., (Syn. E. populnea, F.v.M. ;and including E. largiflorens var. parviflora, Benth.; E. platyphylla, F.v.M.); N.O.Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 214.
Variously called ” Poplar Box,” ” Red Box,” “White Box,” ” Bimbil, or Bembil Box.” The essential oil obtained from the leaves closely resembles cajuput in odour, perhaps more so than any other Eucalyptus oil.
New South Wales, Queensland and Northern Australia.

26. Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 240.
” Red Gum.” (For the numerous other vernacular names and botanical synonyms of this Eucalypt, see “Timbers.”)
The essential oil is pale-yellow to reddish-amber in colour ; it smells and tastes like that from E. odorata ; is of 0.918 specific gravity, and boils at 137° to 181° F. (Wittstein and Mueller.)Plants grown on high ground give an oil of a dark amber colour, possessing an agreeable aromatic flavour, and having the odour of caraways. The yield from 100 lbs. of the fresh gathered leaves was 1 oz. 6 drs. The plants grown on low marshy soil yielded an oil of a pale-yellow colour, in appearance and smell similar to that yielded by E. odorata, the quantity being 9½ drs. to 100 lbs. (Bosisto, Trans. U.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4.)
South Australia to Northern Queensland.

27. Eucalyptus Staigeriana, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, Bailey in Synop. Queensland Flora.
” Lemon-scented Ironbark.”
The leaves possess an odour very like the scented verbena (Lippia citriodora), and yield an oil similar to the verbena oil (from Andropogon citratus) of commerce. Mr. Staiger found the dried leaves to yield 2¾ to 3 per cent, (other figures give 129 oz. to 1 ton of dry leaves) of volatile oil of specific gravity .901. Later experiments fix the specific gravity at .871, while Messrs. Schimmel & Co., of Dresden, give the specific gravity 0.880, and boiling point from 170° to 230°. It is said that the yield of oil from this Eucalypt is only exceeded by one other species, viz., E. amygdalina, and the yield is only very slightly in favour of the latter. Compare Backhousia citriodora.
Queensland.

28. Eucalyptus uncinata, Turcz., (Syn. E. leptophylla, Miq.; E. oleosa, F.v.M. (partly) ; N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 216.
A ” Malice.” “Gunamalary” of the aboriginals of the Lake Hind-marsh Station (Victoria).
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs. of twigs of this tree (comprising, perhaps, 500 lbs. of foliage) yielded 69 ozs. of essential oil.
West and South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

29. Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 239-275
” Manna Gum.” ” Grey Gum.” ” White Gum.” (For the other numerous vernacular names and botanical synonyms of this Eucalypt, see ” Timbers.”)
The essential oil is of a pale yellowish-green colour, of disagreeable, but not penetrating- smell; of 0.921 sp. gr.; it boils at 159° to 182°. (Wittstein and Mueller.) A tree grown at St. Kilda, Melbourne, yielded Mr. Bosisto half-an-ounce of oil per 100 lbs. of leaves. The sp. gr. of the essential oil of E. dealbata (viminalis) is given by Mr. Staiger at .871 at 72° F. Its odour is described as being allied to citronelle, though differing from it, and it is suggested as a soap-perfume. Messrs. Schimmel & Co. (Pharm. Journ., April, 1888) speak of the oil of E. dealbata as possessing, in common with those of E. Baileyana, E. microcorys, and E. maculata, var. citriodora, ” a magnificent, melissa-like odour, which, especially in the oil of E. dealbata, is manifest in a surprisingly fine and rich bouquet. It is thought they will prove to possess extraordinary practical value.”
Bosisto (Tram;. R.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4) states that the oil of E. fabrorum (viminalis) is transparent, reddish-yellow, milder in odour than that from E. globulus; in flavour, resembling caraways and smoke-essence combined, and distinctly bitter to the taste. Yield : 8ozs., from 100 lbs. of fresh leaves.
Tasmania, South Australia, through Victoria to New South Wales.

30. Melaleuca decussata, R.Br., (Syn. M. parviflora, Reichb.; M. oligantha, F.v.M.; M. tetragonia, Otto.); N.O., Myrtacex, B.FL, iii., 133.
The essential oil is of oily consistence and amber colour, sp. gr. 0.938; it boils at 185°-2O9°, and resembles the oil from M. Wilsonii. (Wittstein.) 100 lbs. of the leaves and branchlets yielded about 6oz. of essential oil. (Mueller.)
Victoria and South Australia.

31. Melaleuca ericifolia, Smith, (Syn. M. nodosa, Sieb. non Smith ; M. Gunniana, Schau; M. hediophila, F.v.M.); N.O. Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 159.
The essential oil is pale yellow, and has a taste and smell like cajuput oil; is thin, specific gravity 0.899 — 0.902, and boils at 149° — 184°. (Wittstein and Mueller.) 100 lbs. of the leaves and smaller branches yield 5 oz. of oil. With age, it improves greatly. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except Western Australia.

32. Melaleuca genistifolia, Smith, (Syn. M. lanceolata, Otto; M. bracteata, F.v.M. ; Metrosideros decora, Salisb.); N.O., Myrtaceae.
” Ridge Myrtle.” Called ” Ironwood” in Queensland.
The essential oil is pale greenish-yellow, and mild in odour and taste. Mr. Bosisto gives 1 oz. 2 drs. as the approximate yield of oil from 100 lbs. of leaves and branchlets.
New South Wales to Northern Australia.

33. Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linn., (Syn. M. Cajuputi, Roxb. M. minor, Smith ; M. viridiflora, Gaertn.; M. saligna Blume ; Metrosideros albida, Sieb.; M. coriacea, Salisb.) ; N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 142. M. Lencadendra in Muell Cens., p. 55.
” White Tea-tree.” ” Broad-leaved Tea-tree.” ” Swamp Tea-tree.” ” Paper-barked Tea-tree.” ” Atchoourgo” of the aboriginals of theMitchell River, North Queensland. ” Whitewood” of Northern Territory.
This is a tree which has several fairly well-defined varieties. The fresh leaves of the Australian variety yield -895 per cent, of a. slightly acid essential oil, of specific gravity 917. (Staiger.) Dr. Bancroft, (speaking of M. Leucadendron var. lancifolia), considers ” this oil to be more agreeable than that of cajuput oil, which it closely resembles.” He finds that small insects imprisoned in its vapour are intoxicated. He has found it of value as an antiseptic inhalation in phthisis, for which purpose he considers it more pleasant than Eucalyptus oil. A sample of Queensland oil, however, examined at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition by an expert, was described as having ” a distinctly disagreeable odour, not resembling cajuput, but reminding one of rotten fruit,” so that probably the variety yielding it is somewhat removed from the typical form yielding the cajuput oil of commerce. In Bentley and Trimen’s Medicinal Plants, 108, the name Melaleuca minor is retained as the species name for the cajuput oil plant; “as,! however, it appears that this is the form only from which the oil is obtained, we have maintained the specific name without intending thereby to express any opinion as to its distinctness from the common Australian ‘Tea-tree’ (M. Leucadendron.)”I have, however, given a few notes on cajuput oil, although 1 am a little uncertain as to whether the particular variety of Melalenca which produces it is actually indigenous in Australia. But, whether it is actually indigenous or not, the oils yielded by the various species of Melaleuca possess a greater or less family likeness, and as the oil of the present species has been most worked at, the notes will be useful as a guide.

Rumphius says that the leaves are gathered on a warm day and placed in a sack, where they become hot and damp. They are then macerated in water and left to ferment for a night, and afterwards submitted to distillation. Two sacks full of the leaves yield only about three fluid drachms of the oil. Lesson’s account is also given in Bentley and Trimen’s Medicinal Plants. This is probably a proper and convenient way of treating the leaves of many of our myrtaceous trees with the view of extracting the oil they contain.

“Cajuput, or cajuput oil, is much used in India as an external application for rheumatism. It is a powerful anti-spasmodic diffusible stimulant, and sudorific. It is coming more into use in European practice. It varies in colour from yellowish-green to bluish-green ; it is a transparent mobile fluid, with an agreeable camphoraceous odour, and bitter aromatic taste, sp. gr. 0.926, it remains liquid at 13°C.,and deviates the ray of polarized light to the left. (The author has noticed the oil of every shade of brown, but when exposed to the light it in a few days turns to a greenish colour.) The green tint of the oil may be due to copper*, a minute proportion of which metal is usually present in all that is imported. It may be made evident by agitating the oil with very dilute hydrochloric acid. To the acid, after it has been put into a platinum capsule, a little zinc should be added, when the copper will be immediately deposited on the platinum. The liquid may then be poured off, and the copper dissolved and tested.

When the oil is rectified, it is obtained colourless, but it readily becomes green if in contact for a short time with metallic copper. Guibourt has, however, proved by experiment, that the volatile oil obtained by the distillation of the leaves of several species of Melaleuca, Metrosideros and Eucalyptus, has naturally a fine green hue. It is not improbable that this hue is transient, and that the contamination with copper is intentional, in order to obtain a permanent green.” (Materia Medica of Western India, Dymock.) Oil of cajuput consists mainly of the dihydrate of a hydrocarbon, called Cajputene, isomeric with oil of turpentine. On submitting it to fractional distillation, dihydrate of cajputene, which constitutes about two-thirds of the crude oil, passes over between 175° and 178°; smaller fractions, perhaps products of decomposition, are obtained from 178° to 240°, and from 240° to 250° ; and at 250° only a small residue is left, consisting of carbonaceous matter mixed with metallic copper. On treating this residue with ether, a green solution is obtained, which, when evaporated, leaves a green resin, soluble in the portion which boils between 175° and 178°, and capable of restoring the original colour. (Walls’ Dict., i., 710.) For a full account of Cajputene, isocajputene, Paracajputene, and the salts of Cajputene, see p. 711-2, loc. Cit.
Western Australia, New South Wales and Northern Australia.

34. Melaleuca linariifolia, Smith, (Syn. Metrosideros hyssopifolia, Cav.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 140.
The essential oil is light-straw coloured, mobile, of rather pleasant cajuput-like odour; very agreeable taste, suggestive of mace, but afterwards mint-like; of 0.903 specific gravity, and boiling point 175° to 187°. (Jurors’ Report Exhib., 1862, chiefly from Bosisto’s experiments.) Mr. Bosisto obtained 28 ozs. from 100 lbs. of the fresh leaves.
New South Wales and Queensland.

35. Melaleuca Squarrosa, Smith, (Syn. M. myrtifolia, Vent.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 140.
The essential oil from this shrub is green, and of disagreeable taste. Yield, only 5 drs. from 100 lbs. of material. (Bosisto.)
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales.

36. Melaleuca uncinata, R.Br., (Syn. M. hamata, F. and G. Sert., PI.; M. Drummondii, Schau.; M. semileres, Schau.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1. iii., 150.
Common “Tea-tree.” Called “Broom” in South Australia. ” Yaang-arra”ofthe aboriginals of Illawarra (New South Wales); “Dyurr” of those of Lake Hindmarsh Station (Victoria). This essential oil is green, and smells like that of M. ericifolia, with an admixture of peppermint. (Wittstein.)
South and Western Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, and Queensland.

37. Melaleuca Wilsonii, F.v.M.; N.O., Myrtaceae, 13.F1. iii., 134.
This essential oil somewhat resembles cajuput oil, and is of 0.925 specific gravity. The yield is 4 ozs. from 100 lbs. of green material; the oil is of a pale-yellow colour; in odour, slightly resembling that from M. ericifolia, but devoid of its sweetness. (Bosisto.)
Victoria and South Australia.

38. Mentha australis, R- Br., (Syn. Micromeria australis, Benth.); N.O., Labiatae, B.F1. v. 83.
” Native Peppermint.” ” Panaryle ” of the natives at the Coranderrk Station (Victoria). (Query: Is this an aboriginal attempt to pronounce the word ” Pennyroyal ?”) In taste and smell, this oil hardly differs from ordinary oil of peppermint, but it may be described as somewhat coarser than the best samples of that substance. (Report of Dublin Exh., 1865.) Mr. Bosisto obtained 3 ozs. of oil from 100 lbs. of this plant.
All the colonies except Western Australia.

39. Mentha gracilis, R.Br., (Syn. Micromeria. gracilis, Benth.); N.O., Labiataj, B.F1., v., 83.
The herb from which this oil is obtained contains a portion of its volatile oil in the stems, the total yield from 100 lbs. of the green plant being 3 oz. Its smell is like oil of peppermint, with a slight admixture of pennyroyal. The supply of oil from the leaves is tolerably copious, 100 lbs. of the fresh green shrub, inclusive of branchlets, furnishing 6½ ozs. of a pale-yellow, limpid oil, the odour of which is hardly distinguishable from that of oil of rue, though, perhaps, a little intense and penetrating. Its taste is very disagreeable and acrid, strongly resembling that of rue. The medicinal action of this oil is that of a diuretic and diaphoretic. (Report Dublin Exh., 1865.)
All the colonies except Western Australia and Queensland.

40. Mentha grandiflora, Benth., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., v. 82.
This mint oil has a fiery, bitter, and very unpleasant nauseous taste, together with a characteristic after-taste. It could not be used as a substitute for common peppermint, except for medical purposes. Its specific gravity is .924, and its yield 5 oz. from 100 lbs. of the fresh herb. (Report of Dublin Exhibition, 1865.)
New South Wales and Queensland.

41. Mentha laxiflora, Benth., N.O., Labiaue, B.Fl., v. 82.
This plant yields, on distillation, a pleasant oil, similar to that from peppermint.
Victoria and New South Wales.

42. Nesodaphne obtusifolia, Benth., (Syn. Beilschmiedia obtusifolia, Benth., et Hook.; Cryptocarya obtusifolia, F.v.M.); N.O., Laurinese, B.Fl., v. 299. B. obtusifolia in Muell. Cens., p. 3.
“Queensland Sassafras.”
One ton of the dry bark yields 770 oz. of essential oil (Staiger), = 2.15 per cent. The specific gravity is .978 at 72°F.
New South Wales and Queensland.

43. Pittosporum Undulatum, Vent., N.O. Pittosporeae, B.Fl..
” Native Laurel.” ” Mock Orange.” ” Wallundun-deyren ” of the aborigines.
The oil obtained from the flowers by distillation is limpid, colourless, lighter than water, of an exceedingly agreeable jasmine-like odour; the taste disagreeably hot and bitter, reminding one slightly of turpentine and rue. (Bailey.) 100 lbs. of flowers gave, on distillation, 2 oz. of essential oil (Mueller). Iodine, when brought in contact with it, gives rise to an explosion. This is true of many other oils.
Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland.

44. Polypodium phymatodes, Linn., (Syn. Pleopeltis phymalodes, T. Moore); N.O., Filices, B.F1., vii., 769.
This plant yields an aromatic oil, said to be used in the South Sea Islands for perfuming cocoa-nut oil (Woolls.) See Angiopteris evecta.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

45. Prostanthera lasianthos, Labill. N.O. Labiatae, B.Fl., v., 93.
Called “Dogwood” in Victoria. ” Coranderrk; ” the aboriginal station of that name is called after this plant. A greenish-yellow oil, limpid, and of mint-like odour and taste, and specific gravity 0.912. The yield from 100lbs. of fresh leaves is 2 oz. 4 ¼ drachms. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies.

46. Prostanthera rotundifolia, R.Br., (Syn. P. retusa, R.Br.; P. cotinifolia, A. Cunn.); N.O., Labiatse, B.Fl., v., 96.
This essential oil is of darker colour, and of sp. gr. 0.941, but otherwise resembling the oil from P. lasianthos. (Report of Exh., 1862.) The yield from 100 lbs. of leaves is 12 ozs. of oil. These oils are carminative. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except Queensland and Western Australia.

47. Zieria Smithii, Andr., (Syn. Z. lanceolata, R.Br.; Boronia arborescens, F.v.M.); N.O., Rutaceae, B.Fl., i., 306.
Colonial names are ” Sandfly Bush ” and ” Turmeric.” It is called ” Stinkwood ” in Tasmania. The essential oil is distilled from the leaves. It is pale yellow, of the taste and odour of rue, and of 0.950 specific gravity. (Report Exhib., 1862.) 100 lbs. of the green material produce 6 ½ ozs. of oil. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except South and Western Australia.

PERFUMES. (SEE ALSO “ESSENTIAL OILS.”)
ALTHOUGH many Australian plants (notably a few of the wattles) have sweet-scented flowers, the author is not aware of any serious attempt having yet been made in the colonies to utilize their perfumes. Several of the essential oils, e.g., Backhousia citriodora, Eucalyptus maculata, var. citriodora and E. Staigeriana, page 254 et seq., obtained from the leaves of plants are really perfumes, and their chief use is in scenting soaps, and other preparations. But the quantity obtained is but small, and the plants used are wild. The advice to landowners to try the planting of perfume plants has been frequently given, but it does not appear to promise a heavy profit immediately, and so the industry is neglected. Many parts of littoral Australia are very gardens of flowers, and for a comfortable selector to establish the minor industry of flower-farming and storage of their perfumes, there would be but little outlay; the time required would chiefly be odd moments, while the produce would be a valuable commodity. But, however much we may regret it, we must acknowledge that there is too little enterprise amongst those of us engaged in tilling the soil.

The following is interesting, being from the pen of an authority on perfumery, and one who had travelled in Australia, and who had facilities for learning about Australia not possessed by many dwellers in Europe :—

“The commercial value of flowers is of no mean importance to the wealth of nations. But, vast as is the consumption of perfumes by the people under the rule of the British Empire, little has been done in England, either at home or in her tropical colonies, towards the establishment of flower-farms, or the production of the raw odorous substances in demand by the manufacturing perfumers of Britain ; consequently, nearly the whole are the produce of foreign countries. ” The climate of some of the British colonies especially fits them for the production of odours from flowers that require elevated temperature to bring them to perfection.

” But for the lamented death of Mr. Charles Piesse, Colonial Secretary for Western Australia, flower-farms would doubtless have been established in that colony long ere the publication of this work (1862). Though thus personally frustrated in adapting a new and useful description of labour to British enterprise, I am no less sanguine of the final results in other hands.” (Piesse, The Art of Perfumery.) The few species given below do not profess to be a complete list of Australian perfume plants; the list may, however, be suggestive.

Acacia Conferta, A Cunn., N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 343.
The flowers of this tree possess a remarkable perfume which Dr. Woolls thinks might be utilized commercially. The following species—Acacia acuminata, Benth., A. doratoxylon, A. Cutm., A. harpophylla, F.v.M., A. pendula, A. Cunn., amongst others, yield scented wood, and, therefore, may rank amongst perfumes. (See “Timbers.”)
New South Wales and Queensland.

2. Acacia farnesiana, Willd.,(Syn.A.lenticillata,F.v M.); N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 419.
” Dead Finish ” is the absurd name given to the wood. The flowers yield a delightful perfume, and for that quality are much cultivated in the South of France. The cultivation of this plant is particularly worthy the attention of settlers in Australia as an auxiliary industry. In Italy and France its sweet-scented flowers are mixed with melted fat or olive oil, which becomes impregnated with their odour, and constitutes the line pomade called ” Cassie.”
Interior of South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and Northern Australia.

3. Acacia pycnantha, Benth., (Syn. A, petiolaris, Lehm; A. falcinella, Meissn.); N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 365.
” Golden Wattle.” ” Green Wattle.” ” Broad-leaved Wattle.”
An extract of the flowers of this Wattle was shown as a perfume at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886. A score of other species of Acacia, e.g., A. suaveolens, might be selected as worthy of culture as perfume plants. ” Mutton fat being cheap, and the Wattle plentiful, a profitable trade may be anticipated in curing the flowers, &c.” (Piesse, Art of Perfumery?)
South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

4. Andropogon Schoenanthus, Linn., (Syn. A. Martini, Roxb.; A. cilratum, DC.; A. Nardus, Linn.; Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Spreng.); N.O., Gramineae, B.FI., vii., 534.
A strong-growing grass, more in repute as a perfume than a fodder. Other species of Andropogon are more or less aromatic.
Queensland.

5. Anisomeles salvifolia, R.Br., N.O., Labiate, B.FI., v. 89.
Mr. P. A. O’Shanesy points out that this plant may be made to yield a very delicate perfume. It is a very variable species.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

6. Backhousia Citriodora, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FI., iii.,270.
” Scrub Myrtle.” ” Native Myrtle.”
The foliage of this tree is deliciously lemon-scented, like the Scented Verbena (Lippia citriodora). The essential oil from the leaves has been tested for scenting soaps, and has answered the purpose well. The dried leaves, put in little bags (such as are employed for holding lavender flowers) give, for a long time, a very pleasant odour to the contents of linen-presses, &c.
Queensland.

7. Eucalyptus maculata, Hook, var. citriodora, (Syn. E. citriodora, Hook, f.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FI., iii., 257.
” Citron, or Lemon-scented Gum.” The aboriginal name is ” Urara.”
The leaves emit a delightful odour of citron, especially when rubbed. They should be used to perfume and protect clothes-presses. The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods states they are certainly a specific against cockroaches and ” silver-fish” insects, which are great domestic pests.
Queensland.

8. Guettarda speciosa, Linn., N.O., Rubiaceae, B.FI., iii., 419.
The flowers of this tree are exquisitely fragrant. They come out in the evening, and have all dropped on the ground by morning. The natives in Travancore distil an odoriferous water from the corollas, which is very like rose-water. In order to procure it they spread a very thin muslin cloth over the tree in the evening, taking care that it comes well in contact with the flowers as much as possible. During the heavy dew at night the cloth becomes saturated, and imbibes the extract from the flowers. It is then wrung out in the morning. The extract is sold in the bazaars.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

9. Hierodoa spp, (See ” Grasses,”)
These possess a powerful odour of ” Coumarin.”

10. Humea elegans, Smith, (Syn. Calomeria amanthoides, Vent J; N.O., Compositae, B.FI. iii., 589.
The whole plant on being bruised emits a delightful scent, so overpowering as sometimes to produce headache. Dr. George Bennett (Gatherings of a Naturalist) is of opinion that a very valuable perfume might be obtained from it.
Victoria and New South Wales.

11. Murraya exotica, Linn., (Syn., M. paniculata, Jack) ; N.O., Rutaceae, B.FI. i., 369.
“China Box.”
This bush, which is also a native of India and China, has such delightfully fragrant flowers that it might be worth while to cultivate it as a perfume plant.
Queensland.

12. Pandanus odoratissimus, Linn. (Syn., P. spiralis, R.Br.); N.O., Pandaneae, B.F1., vii., 148.
” Screw Pine.” The natives of India are fond of the scent of this flower, which they place amongst their clothes. The male flowers are exceedingly fragrant, and are much appreciated by the Burmese. The Hindus use them in certain of their religious ceremonies. (Cyclop of India.)
Northern Australia.

13. Pittosporum undulatum, Vent., N.O., Pittosporeae, B.F1.
” Native Laurel.” ” Mock Orange.” ” Bart-bart ” of the aboriginals of the Karnathun tribe, Lake Tyers (Victoria).
This tree is well worth cultivating on a commercial scale for the sake of the sweet perfume of its flowers.
All the colonies except South and Western Australia.

14. Pterigeron liatroides, Benth., (Syn. Pluchea ligulata, F.v.M.; Streptoglossa Steetzii, F.v.M. ; Erigeron liatroides, Turcz.); N.O., Composite, B.FI., iii., 532.
This plant yields a delicious perfume, and therefore may be deemed worthy of cultivation by the horticulturist or flower-farmer, Western and South Australia, and New South Wales.

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The Enigma of Dr. Edward Bach and the
Flower Remedies
-::-:-::-
A Spagyric View
by
Ivor Hughes

The Man and His Work.
Dr. Edward Bach was born on the 24th of September 1886. In the suburb of Moseley, Birmingham, England. He died peacefully on the evening of November 27th, 1936. He was only 50 years old. One presumes that his mission stood completed.

He studied medicine at Birmingham University and completed his training at University College Hospital in London, where he subsequently obtained his degree in medicine. He became interested in immunology and worked as Assistant Bacteriologist at London’s University College Hospital. His orthodox medical career was as varied as it was successful. He also worked as a General Practitioner, maintaining a practice in Harley Street London. Whilst working as a bacteriologist and pathologist he helped in the development of various vaccines. He also studied Homeopathy, and produced a set of Homeopathic nosodes, which carry his name. However his monument is the gift of the ‘Flower  Remedies’. A natural modality that is derived from Spagyric and Homeopathic practices. They work on emotional states by anti-doting them ‘Similia Similibus Curantur’. Modern Psychiatric (Crude and Barbaric) treatment uses brain chemicals for the same purpose.

Much of what we know of Edward Bach the man, or that which has passed into folklore, has been passed on from a small circle of people, who surrounded him whilst he worked on the remedies. I am asked to accept that some few days before his death, he burnt most of his working papers. Therefore any analysis of his work and it’s intentions must necessarily be based on speculation. Informed speculation is the basis of circumstantial evidence.

Circumstantial Profile.
Edward Bach was born during, and lived through the Victorian and Edwardian Era. Homeopathy still fresh from it’s stunning success during the London Cholera epidemic of the mid 1850’s, stood on an equal footing before the law with that of the orthodox school of medicine. It was common to find doctors of the orthodox school, training in, and practicing Homeopathy. In fact most of the distinguished doctors of that era did.

The nature of orthodox training was quite authoritarian. You know the method, “Memorise those 200 bones during your lunch hour, your anatomy test is after lunch”. We know nothing of Dr. Bach’s emotional entanglement., however his attitude towards women is testified by his choice of personal assistant in Nora Weeks. That he was a polymath there is no doubt. The boundaries that orthodox medical training had placed around him, were courageously pushed back. This at a time when the merest whiff of ‘Vitalism’ would earn one a good boiling in scientific oil.

Perhaps this is an explanation for his move to the ruralities? Dr. Bach seemed to have had a talent for putting his foot in it. A man of principle! We may well understand that his written initial work along Spagyric lines, i.e.  The 12 Healers, would have not sat well in polite, orthodox, Christian society. Such matters were considered to be the work of the Devil, and were anathematised by the religious hardliners.

In Dr. Bach’s day, the corner Chemist shop was a familiar sight in Britain. The Pharmacist was also trained in the art of Homeopathic Pharmacy. In addition to the chemicals, a number of plant drugs were also official. His task was to fill the doctors prescription. This according to the Pharmacopoeia standards. Informed of course by the Pharmaceutical Society. In other words they held the legal monopoly. They stocked the recommended patent medicines but they would not stock anything that they thought was snake oil. Bach chose to take his remedies to a Homeopathic Pharmacy. I believe he did so for pragmatic reasons. He was Homeopathic Physician and that he was selling homeopathic potencies of his remedies, more on this later.

Hints of Dr Bach’s Cosmology.
In 1931 the first edition of ‘Heal Thyself”, the seminal work of the flower remedy school, was published. In it we may see his Spiritual outreach and the framework within which the remedies were developed. In Edward Bach’s own words:

“One of the exceptions to materialistic methods in modern science is that of the great Hahnemann, the founder of Homeopathy, who with his realisation of the beneficent love of the Creator and of the divinity which resides within man, by studying the mental attitude of his patients toward life, environment and their respective  diseases, sought to find in the herbs of the field and in the realms of nature the remedy which would not only heal their bodies but would at the same time uplift their mental outlook.”**

“May his science be extended and developed by those true physicians who have the love of humanity at heart”**. Five hundred years before Christ some physicians of ancient India, working under the influence of the Lord Buddha, advanced the art of healing to so perfect a state that  they were able to abolish surgery, although the surgery of their time was as efficient, or more so, than that of the present day.”

“Such men as Hippocrates with his mighty ideals of healing, Paracelsus with his certainty of the divinity of man, and Hahnemann realised that disease originated in a plane above the physical-all these knew much of the real nature and remedy of suffering.**

“What untold misery would have been spared during the last twenty or twenty-five centuries had the teaching,  of these great masters of the art been followed.** but, as in other things, materialism has appealed too strongly to the Western world, and for so long a time, that the voices of the practical obstructors have risen above the advice of those who knew the truth.”

** My emphasis. I feel that the first paragraph was almost a mirror image of Bach himself. Indeed Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) was Dr. Edward Bach’s model. Who could have wished for a more apt pupil?

His original work ‘The 12 Healers’ was based upon the 12 Astrological types. In a later edition of the book of the same title he introduced a further 26 remedies to the Materia Medica. Interestingly enough the emotional states to be treated were classified under 7 headings. Now it is interesting to speculate, that he went about his search in one of two ways. Firstly by the classical method of a healthy prover. Or secondly, that he himself suffered from those mental and emotional storms and strode the countryside seeking relief. There are 7 inner planets and 7 days in a week. Thus we may see that much of his earlier writing is replete in Hermetic teaching and symbolism.

Dr. Bach’s Approach.
We are informed that Edward Bach used the Classical Homeopathic approach to the proving’s, and like all genuine physicians he first tried the substances on himself. Like cures like, therefore one presumes that the substances which he tested, produced in him the malaise which it was intended to antidote. Or that it antidoted the malaise. He then reduced the actual amount of the active substance by dilution. Up to now this sounds like homeopathy. He was a Homeopathic Physician. Dr.Hahnemann had already signposted the way. It led to Paracelsus. There we find the root of Homeopathy. There we find the moon distilled drop that mingles with the dew drops on plants. And at dawn a little natural lense pointed at the Sun. The lense was a magnifying lense. The heat generated by the early morning sun through the lense, acts like a hot poultice, and draws to the surface of the petal and then absorbs its medicinal potential. This was living essence direct from the flower. This was an Anabolic process. The effect of the Sun on an anabolic process is stimulant rather than destructive.

The early Spagyric practitioners would draw muslin cloths across stands of wild plants of the same specie, an hours or so past dawn. The collected liquid is then potentised by rotation through the influences of sun and moon for a period of 7 days. It was enclosed in a sealed opaque container to protect it from the rays of the sun., this was left outdoors. The heating effect of the sun , sets up a flux of evaporation and condensation. Thus we have a rhythmic natural rotation, which slows to almost  imperceptible during the hours of night.

We are informed that Bach used an eye dropper to collect the sun ripened dew drops. This because he had no need of the quantities of dew that were needed before the time of Hahnemannn. For example 5 ml (Imperial 84.5 minims) added to 50 ml of dilutent would produce the first 55 ml of a 1:10 Homeopathic Mother Tincture.

If we proceed on the basis of Hahnemanns Centesimal Scale (C) 1 ml of mother tincture is added to 100 mil of the diluting medium and sucussed. That is 1 C or 2x on the Hering scale. Then 1 ml of the 1 C is added to another 100 ml of dilutent. Each 1 ml of potency becomes 100 ml of the next potency. Therefore the original 55 ml of mother tincture increases by 100 increments at each level of potency. On a good day a 5 ml eye dropper represents about 30 minutes work. By hand a 30 C (60x) potency will take circa 3 hours to produce. However as a homeopathic physician he would have been more than familiar with the variety of mechanical sucussion apparatus that was available at that time. So it will be well understood, that neither quantity of the original substance, or the labour involved in potentising presented any kind of problem.

The ‘Nelsons’ Connection.
Let Nelsons introduce themselves, the following is taken from their website http://www.nelsons.co.uk/

Background
In 1860, a young pharmacist and student of Samuel Hahnemann, Ernst Louis Ambrecht, came to London and opened a homeopathic pharmacy in Ryder Street where he could put into practice the principles learned from his teacher. The pharmacy soon outgrew its original premises and in 1890 it was moved to Duke Street where it remains today supplying homeopathic medicines to customers all over the world. Ernst’s son Nelson, who changed the name of the company to A. Nelson and Co succeeded him. As its reputation has grown so has the demand for its products. As Europe’s oldest and the UK’s largest manufacturer of homeopathic medicines, Nelsons now produces the most comprehensive range in Britain from its specialised manufacturing laboratories in Wimbledon.

Quality
Nelsons has two laboratories licensed by the Medicines Control Agency (MCA), where all of its remedies are produced. Top quality plant materials are sourced from around the world. The ingredients are all thoroughly tested under strict quality controls.

Nelsons is distinguished as the oldest Homeopathic Pharmacy in Europe with over 140 years of knowledge relating to Dr. Hahnemanns system of medicine in all of its aspects.

Enter Dr. Bach
I would imagine that Edward Bach was well received at Nelsons. With him he would have taken a sample of his products. His provings, and very importantly, his original clinical case notes. Without  which Nelsons would not have entertained Dr. Bach. The Bach Centre copy has disappeared, perhaps Nelsons still have the case files in their archives? Perhaps they were selling Dr. Bach’s new homeopathic remedies? Again a search of the company archives would settle the question.

The Enigma.
The names of ‘Hippocrates, Paracelsus and Hahnemann, roll from Bach’s pen like a eulogy. He plainly states that they ‘knew the truth‘ Dr. Bach was a trained Homeopathic Physician. He thought as a Hermetic Scientist he was a ‘Vitalist’. He of all people, would have understood the importance of the strict procedural method of producing a remedy. Without which, reproduction of a remedy is not possible, for very common sense reasons, which will be explained.

We are given to understand that the Dr. Bach method for producing these remedies is of two orders. (1) The Sun Method (2) The Boiling Method. Let us look at both methodologies. Reproduced below is 2 communications from ‘Nelsons USA’ The American distributors of the ‘Bach Flower Remedies’.

From Nelson USA
17th of October 2002

Dear Ivor Hughes,
My apologies for the delay in responding to your email. I was waiting on the answer from our mother company in England since I myself was not sure on the ratio. They responded; for the sun method a 500 ml bowl is filled with spring water and covered with flowers The boil method, a stainless steel saucepan is filled with the flowering twigs or specified part of the plant, covered with water.
The exact ratio of plant to water in each case is not specified in Dr. Bach’s writing, although a ratio of 50:1 for sun method and 10:1 for the boil method was given by the Bach Center
I hope this answers your question. If you need to talk to me please call
800-319-9151

Kind regards
Denise M. Eaton
Retail Training Coordinator
[email protected]

This was a follow up on the above email.

There are two methods of preparing the Mother Tinctures for the Bach Flower Essences ©
The Sun Method: Dr. Bach used this method to make 20 of the Essences ©, most of which are delicate blooms in the height of summer.

The Boiling Method: Dr. Bach used this method to prepare the remaining 18 Essences ©, from trees and bushes and plants, most of which flower in the early part of the year

A three step process – preparing the Bach Flower Essences ©.

Step One – Mother tinctures are prepared from plant material and natural spring water using either the sun or boiling method as defined by Dr. Bach’s instructions.

Step Two – The mother tincture is made up of the energized spring water (Step one) mixed with an equal quantity of 40% brandy. The brandy acts purely as a preservative for the water.

Step Three – To make the stock bottle, two drops of mother tincture are added to 30 ml of 27% brandy, which is also known as ‘grape alcohol’.

Bach flower Essences © are produced exactly according to the methods set out by Dr. Edward Bach. The Essences © are energized by the sun or boiling method. No further potentisation is carried out.

My overall reaction on reading this was one of disbelief. Is this it? The sum total of Dr. Edward Bach’s lifetime work? Dr. Bach’s working papers have disappeared, therefore, we have no means of verifying if the above was his intention or not. Unless of course Nelson’s still have the original formula monographs?

My most overwhelming impression was that  the instructions for steps 1, 2 and 3 have been very carefully worded from a legal angle. The words raise some question marks.

The word ‘Essence’ as applied in pharmacy can apply either to an essential oil, or if the term is used in the USA, to a spirituous suspension of the oil. That being the case, the 18 ‘Decoctions’ produced by the boiling method can hardly be designated as essences, or can they? I am not sure that the Sun ‘infusions’ would be accepted as an essence either.

The first email states, that the Bach Centre, had informed Nelsons USA, that the ratio of plants to water for the Sun method is 50:1 and for the boiling method 10:1.Now that means 50 parts or 10 parts respectively to 1 part of water. That is a physical impossibility. So are we to assume that the Bach Centre do not know what they are doing, or have thy made a mistake?  I think what the Bach Flower Centre meant, 1:50 for the sun method and 1:10 for the boiling method. If my supposition is correct, we are then left with a large discrepancy of ingredient in solvent, between the Sun and the Boiling method, this by w/v. In terms of the 38 remediesthis is a nonsense which cannot be explained away in any kind of satisfactory manner. The ratio of dilutions that follow the procedure clearly demonstrates that this is also nonsense. Therefore I must now proceed on the basis, that both methods are prepared to the standard vibrational medicine mother tincture of 1:10.

It will also be seen, from the preparation instructions from the Bach Centre,  that they use a 500 ml bowl. (1 pint approximates 568 ml) this mean 50 grams of fresh petals per 500 ml of water. The drying ratio of flower petals is a ratio of 10:1 theoretically the 50 grams of petals contain 45 ml of water. However this is not a fixed quantity but will vary according to the weather conditions such as wet and gorged with water or parched from lack of rain. Therefore the integrity of the menstruum which in this case is water is called into question. Further information on menstruum integrity may be obtained from my articles on pharmacy on the main page of the website .

The integrity of the menstruum is further compromised by the addition of an equal amount of 40% by volume Brandy. This will produce a 20% by volume alcoholic menstruum. This means that the original 1:50 mother tincture is now 1:100. Then unbelievably we are further informed that a stock bottle is comprised of 2 drops of the 1:100 tincture which are added to 30 ml of 27% Brandy. So far the menstruum has been changed 3 times. If there are any soluble constituents in a solution and one changes the composition of the solution precipitation will occur. On that basis of Vibrational Medicine, as in homeopathy, we could assume that there is some kind of magnetic precipitation.

Vibrational or Energy Medicines are potentised in a menstruum or a solid,  which retains the molecular memory or information of the original substance that it contained. If one then changes the menstruum the information is also altered. . On that same basis it may be seen that the mix and match system advocated e.g., The Rescue Remedy would also produce a confused energy field which would antidote the remedy. Nelsons then further inform us as follows;

Rescue Remedy
“Dr. Bach created an emergency combination containing five flower remedies – Impatiens, Star of Bethlehem, Cherry Plum, Rock Rose and Clematis.

Rescue Remedy combines these five Bach Flower Remedies and can be used to help you cope with immediate everyday situations such as going to the dentist, interviews, making a complaint or wedding day nerves. It can also help in times of crisis or trauma such as bereavement, a relationship breakdown or redundancy.”

I can find no other reference that Dr. Bach was responsible for the creation of the ‘Rescue Remedy’ Neither do I believe that as a physician, he would have clamed such a wide ranging action. ‘Shot Gun Remedies’ have a very poor reputation. It is Spagyric and Classical Homeopathic insistence on a single remedy that if a complex of symptoms are present, that the remedies are given individually with a suitable interval between each. Approaching the malaise rather like peeling and onion.

If Bach were responsible, then he is also guilty of committing every beginners mistake, that of combining 2 or more herbs of the same therapeutic class. Yet he was a trained physician. To even think that he would advocate that his precious remedies be treated as though they were a box of mixed chocolates, is ludicrous in the extreme.

So What is Wrong?
Based on the matters already placed before you, I believe that Dr. Bach was producing Spagyric remedies incorporating Dr. Hahnemanns methodology.

Bach would have been fully aware that his dropper method of collecting dew from living flowers was far superior to producing a sun infusion of maimed and dying flower petals. Yet we are given stories of crystal bowls, flower petals, and pure spring water being gently potentised by the sun.

There is no pure natural water anywhere on the planet. The planet is contaminated from pole to pole with hormone and endocrine disrupters. The composition of spring water also depends on the strata through which it has risen so its composition will vary from location to location. Its chemical variability will affect the composition of the substance it contains. That is the ‘why’ of using distilled water. Distilled water may be energised by the correct rotation procedures.

Metabolism is of two orders Anabolism or the building up of complex structures, and Catabolism which is the breaking down of complex structures. Tissue, either plant or human, when it is dying, is in the catabolic state, There is some polygraph evidence that plants react to pain. So the type of vibration being absorbed into the spring water is not of health, but the sounds of dying. This in an order of vibrations of many magnitudes above that of the standard tincture or extract.

Direct sunlight accelerates the catabolic process that is why medicinals are stored in amber bottles. However when the mother substance is collected by a dropper from the living flower, it is an Anabolic process. This is common sense.

Irrespective of ones personal concept of what constitutes vibrational medicine, one may not escape the physical constraints placed upon the matrix or menstruum that holds that energy. The physical state of the solvent has an effect for good ordetriment upon the substance which is dissolved in it. If you change the menstruum one changes the nature of the remedy, This is common sense . Dr. Bach would have been fully aware of those constraints. Therefore it does not make sense, that he would fly in the face of his experience, and abruptly change the physical nature of the solvent, by diluting it half and half with 40% brandy. That is also the reverse of the procedures followed by Dr. Hahnemann. Bach quite clearly states that Hahnemann ‘knew the truth’ and then further, “May his science be extended and developed by those true physicians who have the love of humanity at heart”

I am quite sure that Dr. Edward Bach would not consider the methodology described by The Bach Centre, or Nelsons, to be a development of Dr. Hahnemanns work. Quite the opposite in fact.

The so called boiling method is called a ‘Decoction’ There are definite rules that need to be followed for such preparations. Decoctions are still official in many Pharmacopoeias. Once again the methodology is based on the physical constraints of the plant part being treated. Decoctions are water extracts of barks and woods and seeds. They are not vibrational Medicine.

I dread to think, what such a process would inflict on such a delicate structure as spring blossom. After all we are not boiling potatoes. We are supposedly preparing a potentised  energy medicine.

The Spagyric Method of Flower Remedies.
Each drop of dew that is harvested by the dropper method would contain ethereal traces of essential oils alcohols and esters. Accordingly the Menstruum should be a minimum of 90% alcohol by volume.

The alcohol must be prepared from the green parts of the plant from which the flowers were taken. This requires some forethought for spring blossom, because the alcohol must be prepared from the leaves of the plant in early summer. Therefore it must be prepared in the previous season.

In this way the molecularintegrity of plant memory is maintained throughout the process. 1 ml of the collected flower dew is added to 10 ml of the alcohol. That is the 1:10 mother tincture. This is the mother tincture  and may be prepared in any units of ten e.g. 1 litre of dew in 10 litres of alcohol. The spagyric mother tincture is potentisedby  the Hahnemann method of sucussion to the 3 C potency, that means that the original 1 ml will produce manylitres.

In Conclusion
There are many people for whom the Bach Flower Essences just do not work. On the other hand there are many for whom they do. The short answer to that is ‘Placebo’.

I feel that Dr. Bach’s work has been ideologically sanitised and corrupted. I note from the Bach Centre FAQ’s that they are of low church and that a Devil’s Advocate will not deter them from the simplicity of their methods. 

I for one, do not believe that the methods described, are those that Dr. Bach used. This for all of the reasons that I have stated. I also feel that ‘Nelsons Homeopathic Pharmacy” owe everyone that uses those products an explanation. Not from the retail training coordinator, but rather from the Pharmaceutical Head of Nelsons Laboratory. I would be most interested to hear how he/she feels that a ‘Decoction’which has been diluted many  times, and this without potentisation, can have such a far ranging effect upon an individuals emotional state. Perhaps that pharmacist knows something that no one else is privy to?

Ivor Hughes
Auckland NZ Dec 2002  

Addendum July 13th 2008
Regarding the potentising of the Homeopathic 1:10 Mother tincture by the succussionmethod to ensure information transfer  .. that the process is magnetic innature appears to be the front runner. What I did not mention was that becauseof the delicacy of these floral spirits suspended in a menstruum which whichthey have an affinity .. the Spagyric method of potentisation is by gentlerotation under Sun and Moon .. the Earth is represented by the essence of theplant. The knack here is that each potency is achieved by a step of 7 .. so themother tincture needs to be made to a ratio of 1:7 .. the next step is the firstpotency that comprises of a 7 day rotation under sun and moon .. to increase itspotency .. this then proceeds in increments of 7 days of rotation .. 14, 21, 28up to a maximum of 42 days which is assumed to be the the philosophic month ..what this means is that we can have small quantities  of the 28, 35, and 42potencies available for when required plus the energy levels to meet the mostprevalent conditions met by the therapist .. the water based essences althougheffacious deteriorate quite rapidly  

                 

Library

 

 

EQUIVALENT B.P. (1932) FORMULA
Compiled and Edited by Ivor Hughes.

 

N.B. None plant drugs have been omitted.

THE following equivalent formulae have been prepared in order to be a convenience to the pharmacist when preparing quantities in Imperial weights and measures. The formula give only the proportions of the constituents and quantities to be used in the process of manufacture; for the method the pharmacist is referred to the B.P. 1932. It should be noted that the quantities given here in the Imperial system are not the equivalent of the individual quantities given in the B.P. in the metric system; therefore, whichever formula is used the quantities specified in that particular formula must be adhered to throughout.

Liquids should be measured in all cases unless the contrary is specifically indicated. It should be noted that the Imperial system is standardised at a temperature 16-7° (62°F.), at which temperature 1 mil of water weighs somewhat less than 1 gramme, therefore, in making percentage w/v solutions with Imperial weights and measures to correspond with the percentage w/v preparations of the B.P. it is necessary to take 438.47 gr. (approximately 438½ gr.) as equal to 1 oz. In the following formulae this has been the basis of calculation, but as it often leads to inconvenient fractions the figures have been rounded off for the sake of practical convenience. Where inconvenient fractions occur, it will usually be found that the nearest half grain or minim, up or down, can be reckoned.

Abbreviations: — gr. = grain; m. = minim; oz. = ounce; fl. oz. = fluid ounce; p.c. = per cent; q.s.=in sufficient quantity; w/v=weight in volume.

Acetum Scillae.— VINEGAR OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Dilute Acetic Acid ……………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Acidum Aceticum Dilutum.— DILUTE ACETIC ACID.
Acetic Acid, by weight …………….. 3 oz. 297 gr.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.

Adeps Benzoinatus.— BENZOINATED LARD.
Lard …………………………… 20 oz.
Benzoin, coarsely powdered ………… 263 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Adeps Lanae Hydrosus.—HYDROUS WOOL FAT. SYN. LANOLIN.
Wool Fat ………………………. 14 oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED DILL WATER.
Oil of Dill ……………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water ………………… -to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Destillata.— DISTILLED DILL WATER.
Dill …………………………… 2 oz.
Water………………………….. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Camphorae.— CAMPHOR WATER.
Camphor ………………………. 8 ¾ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 19 .2 m.
Distilled Water ………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED CINNAMON WATER,.
Oil of Cinnamon …………………. 192 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Destillata.— DISTILLED CINNAMON WATER.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 2 oz.
Water. …………………………. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.. 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED PEPPERMINT WATER. .
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water…………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Destillata.— DISTILLED PEPPERMINT WATER.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 9.60 m.
Water ………………………….. 30 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

Confectio Sennae.—CONFECTION OF SENNA.
Senna Leaf, in fine powder …………. 5 oz.
Coriander, in fine powder …………… 2 oz.
Figs of commerce ……………..8 oz.
Tamarind ………………………. 6 oz.
Cassia …………………………. 6 oz.
Prunes of commerce ……… 4 oz.
Extract of Liquorice …………. ¾ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 20 oz.
Distilled Water…………………..q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; boiling the figs, Tamarind, and prunes in 17½ fl. oz. of distilled water, and making the final product weigh not less than 50 oz. and not more than 55 oz.

Elixir Cascarae Sagradae.— ELIXIR OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder……. 20 oz.
Liquorice, unpeeled, in coarse powder 2½ oz.
Light Magnesium Oxide……………. 3 oz.
Soluble Saccharin ………………… 8¾ gr.
Oil of Coriander………………….. 1½ m.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 2 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 120 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Distilled Water……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; moistening the Cascara Sagrada, Liquorice and Light Magnesium Oxide with 25 fl. oz. of boiling Distilled Water, evaporating the percolate to 13 fl. oz., dissolving the Soluble Saccharin in 115 m. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Emplastrum Cantharidini.—PLASTER OF CANTHARIDIN.
SYN. CANTHARIDIN PLASTER; BLISTERING PLASTER.
Cantharidin ……………………… 17½ gr.
Acetone ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Castor Oil, by weight ………….. 4 oz.
Yellow Beeswax ……………… 8 oz.
Wool Fat ………………………. 7 oz. 421 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Cascarae Sagradae Liquidum.— LIQUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA. 
SYN. FLUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder ……. 20 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; evaporating the percolate to 12 fl. oz., adding the Alcohol previously mixed with 3 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water if necessary.

Extractum Cinchonae Liquidum.—LIQUID EXTRACT OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 10 oz. 9 ¾ gr.
Hydrochloric Acid ……………….. 288 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Extract of Cinchona with the Alcohol and 5 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum.— COMPOUND EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH.
Colocynth, crushed ……………….. 5 oz. 175 gr.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 11 oz. 87½ gr.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …….. 3 oz. 307 gr.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 2 oz. 350¾ gr.
Cardamom, in fine powder …………. 394 gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 140 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Malti cum Oleo Morrhuae.— EXTRACT OF MALT WITH COD LIVER OIL.
Extract of Malt ………………….. 18 oz.
Cod-Liver Oil, by weight……………. 2 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Aurantii Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
|Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 27 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.,1932; macerating the Orange Peel with 20 fl. oz. of the Alcohol 25 p.c., and again with 7 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Aurantii Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight…….. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Buchu Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the direction given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Buchu with Alcohol, 25 p.c., collecting and reserving 15 fl. oz., evaporating the succeeding 20 fl. oz., dissolving it in the reserved portion and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Buchu Recens. — FRESH INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Calumbae Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Calumba in 22 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, then adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Calumbae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Caryophylli Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised. ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 22 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Cloves with 12 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and again with 10 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Caryophylli Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised…………………… ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Digitalis Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF DIGITALIS. SYN. INFUSUM DIGITALIS; INFUSION OF DIGITALIS.
Powdered Digitalis, equivalent to … 43¾ gr. of International Standard Digitalis Powder. Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Concentratum.
CONCENTRATED COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 2 oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 24 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Gentian, Orange, and Lemon Peels with 20 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and a second time with 4 fl. oz.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Recens.— FRESH COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… ¼ oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… ¼ oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Quassiae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 1 oz. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Quassia with 13 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Quassiae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 87½ gr.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Senegae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 8 oz.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ……….. q.s.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senega with Alcohol, 25 p.c., reserving the first 15 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, then making faintly alkaline by addition of the Ammonia and finally adding Alcohol, 25 p.c., to make 20 fl. oz.

Infusum Senegae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Sennae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit, lightly crushed ………… 16 oz.
Strong Tincture of Ginger ……… 1 fl. oz. 288 m.
Alcohol, 20 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senna Fruit with Alcohol, 20 p.c., reserving the first 14 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, adding the strong Tincture of Ginger and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 20 p.c.

Infusum Sennae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit …………………….. 2 oz.
Ginger, sliced …………………… 43¾ gr.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Injectio Sodii Chloridi et Acaciae.— INJECTION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE AND ACACIA.
Sodium Chloride …………………. 79 gr.
Acacia, in large complete tears free from dust … 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Distilled Water. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Acacia and Sodium Chloride in 19 fl. oz. of Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Linimentum Aconiti.— LINIMENT OF ACONITE.
Aconite, in moderately coarse powder…10 oz. 9¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; exhausting the Aconite by percolation, reserving the first 15 fl. oz. of percolate, evaporating the remainder, adding it to the reserved portion, dissolving the Camphor in the mixture and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Camphorae.— LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR. SYN. CAMPHORATED OIL.
Camphor ………………… 1 oz.
Olive Oil, by weight ………………. 4 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Camphorae Ammoniatum.— AMMONIATED LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 2 oz. 221 gr.
Oil of Lavender ………………….. 48 m.
Strong Solution of Ammonia ……….. 5 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Saponis.— LINIMENT OF SOAP.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 264 gr.
Camphor ………………………. 350¾ gr.
Oil of Rosemary ……………… 144 m.
Distilled Water. …………………. 3 fl. oz. ‘192 m. ,
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Soap, Camphor and Oil of Rosemary in 12 fl, oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., adding the Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Terebinthinae.—LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 220J gr.
Camphor ………………………. 438J gr.
Oil of Turpentine ………………… 13 fl. oz.
Distilled Water.. ………………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; first mixing the Soft Soap with 2 fl. oz. of Distilled Water.

Linimentum Terebinthinae Aceticum.— ACETIC LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE. 
SYN. LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE AND ACETIC ACID.
Glacial Acetic Acid ……………….. 2 fl. oz. 96 m.
Liniment of Camphor …………….. 8 fl. oz. 432 m.
Oil of Turpentine………………. . to 20 fl. 6z.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mistura Sennae Composita.— COMPOUND MIXTURE OF SENNA. SYN. BLACK DRAUGHT.
Magnesium Sulphate………………. 5 oz. 5 gr.
Liquid Extract of Liquorice ………… 1 fl. oz.
Compound Tincture of Cardamom. …. 2 fl. oz.
Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia ………… 1 fl. oz.
Fresh Infusion of Senna …………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Magnesium Sulphate in 10 fl. oz. of the Fresh Infusion of Senna, and after adding the mixed Liquid Extract of Liquorice, Compound Tincture of Cardamom and Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, making up to 20 fl. oz. with Fresh Infusion of Senna.

Mucilago Acaciae.— MUCILAGE OF ACACIA. SYN. MUCILAGE OF GUM ACACIA.
Acacia …………………………. 8 oz.
Chloroform Water ……………….. 12 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mucilago Tragacanthae.— MUCILAGE OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 109½ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 240 m.
Chloroform Water …………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel.— OXYMEL.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel Scillae.— OXYMEL OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 1 oz.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 1 fl. oz. 384 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Squill in the Acetic Acid and Distilled Water, and to
every three volumes of the resulting preparation adding seven volumes of Purified Honey.

Pilula Aloes.— PILL OF ALOES. SYN. ALOES PILL.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……….. 1 oz.
Oil of Caraway ………………….. 50 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 151 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Aloes et Asafoetidae. — PILL OF ALOES AND ASAFETIDA.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 1½ oz.
Asafetida ………………………. 1½ oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……… 1 ½ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… ½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami.— PILL OF COLOCYNTH AND HYOSCYAMUS.
Colocynth, in fine powder ………….. 1¼ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2½ oz.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …. 2½ oz.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 306¼ gr.
Oil of Cloves ……………………. 192 m.
Dry Extract of Hyoscyamus ……. 1¼ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 1 oz. 175 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND PILL OF RHUBARB. SYN. COMPOUND RHUBARB PILL.
Rhubarb, in fine powder……………. 2½ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Myrrh …………………………. 1 oz. 175 gr.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ………….1 oz. 175 gr.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 96 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 2½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus.—AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK.
Chalk, finely powdered ……………. 6¼ oz.
Cinnamon, finely powdered …………. 2½ oz.
Nutmeg, finely powdered ………….. 2 oz.
Clove, finely powdered …………….. 1 oz.
Cardamom, finely powdered ………… ¾ oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 12½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus cum Opio.— AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK WITH OPIUM.
Aromatic Powder of Chalk …………. 9¾ oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… ¼ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Glycyrrhizae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF LIQUORICE.
Senna Leaf, finely powdered ………… 2 oz.
Liquorice, peeled, finely powdered…….. 2 oz.
Fennel, finely powdered ……………. 1 oz.
Sublimed Sulphur ……………….. 1 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 6½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii.— POWDER OF IPECACUANHA AND OPIUM. SYN. PULVIS OPII ET IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS I.A.; PULVIS IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS; COMPOUND POWDER OF IPECACUANHA; DOVER’S POWDER.
Powdered Ipecacuanha …………….. 1 oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… 1 oz.
Lactose, finely powdered ………….. 8 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Jalapae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF JALAP.
Powdered Jalap…………………… 3 oz.
Potassium Acid Tartrate, finely powdered. 6 oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Rhei Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF RHUBARB. SYN. GREGORY’S POWDER.
Rhubarb, finely powdered ………….. 2½oz.
Heavy Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Light Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Tragacanthae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 1½ oz.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Starch, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 4½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Cajuputi.— SPIRIT OF CAJUPUT.
Oil of Cajuput …………………… 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Camphorae.— SPIRIT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………..to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Menthae Piperatae.—SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT. SYN. ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus.— SYRUP.
Sucrose …………….. 13 oz. 148¾ gr. or 5 pounds
Distilled Water, by weight to 20 oz. or to 7½ pounds.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Aurantii.—SYRUP OF ORANGE.
Tincture of Orange ……………….. 2½ fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

 

Syrupus Limonis.— SYRUP OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Citric Acid ……………………… 210½ gr.
Syrup ………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Lemon Peel in 1 fl. oz. 192 m. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., pressing, filtering, and making up the filtrate to 2 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c., as directed; dissolving the Citric Acid in the liquid and adding Syrup to produce 20 fl. oz.

Syrupus Pruni Serotinae.—SYRUP OF WILD CHERRY. SYN. SYRUPUS PRUNI VIRGINIANAE; SYRUP OF VIRGINIAN PRUNE.
Wild Cherry Bark, in moderately coarse powder … 3 oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Glycerin ………………………. 1 fl. oz.
Distilled Water …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Glycerin with 4 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, moistening the Wild Cherry Bark with 2 fl. oz. of the mixture, percolating as directed onto the Sucrose so as to obtain 20 fl. oz. of finished Syrup of Wild Cherry.

Syrupus Scillae.— SYRUP OF SQUILL.
Vinegar of Squill ………….. 9 fl. oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Distilled Water ………………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Sennae.— SYRUP OF SENNA.
Liquid Extract of Senna … 5 fl. oz.
Oil of Coriander………………..14½ m.
Sucrose ………………………… 14 oz.
Distilled Water…………….to 20 fl, oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Oil of Coriander with the Liquid Extract of Senna, adding 6 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, making up the filtrate to 11 fl. oz. with Distilled Water, and after dissolving the Sucrose making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Syrupus Tolutanus.— SYRUP OF TOLU. SYN. SYRUP OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 13½ oz.
Distilled Water………………… to 20 oz. by weight.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; adding 8 fl. oz. of Distilled Water to the Balsam of Tolu, boiling and adjusting the weight as directed to 71 oz., filtering and dissolving the Sucrose in the filtrate, finally adding Distilled Water to produce 20 oz. by weight.

Syrupus Zingiberis.— SYRUP OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …… 1 fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Asafoetidae.— TINCTURE OF ASAFETIDA.
Asafetida, bruised ………………… 4 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Asafetida with 15 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Aurantii.— TINCTURE OF ORANGE.
Fresh Bitter-Orange Peel, in thin slices … 5 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Benzoini Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BENZOIN. SYN. FRIAR’S BALSAM.
Benzoin, crushed …………………2 oz.
Storax …………………………. 1½ oz.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½oz.
Aloes ………………………….. 175 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Benzoin, Storax, Balsam of Tolu, and Aloes, with 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Tinctura Calumbae.— TINCTURE OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tincturi Capsici.— TINCTURE OF CAPSICUM.
Capsicum, in moderately coarse powder . . 1 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cardamom! Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CARDAMOM.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder. . 122¾ gr.
Caraway, in moderately coarse powder. .. . 122¾ gr.
Cinnamon, in moderately coarse powder . . 245½ gr.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 61½ gr.
Glycerin ……………………….. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; producing 18 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Catechu.— TINCTURE OF CATECHU.
Catechu, crushed ………………… 4 oz.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932: by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cinchonas.— TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Cinchonas Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 1 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. 1 oz.
Serpentary, in moderately fine powder. …. 4 oz.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . .26 gr.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Bitter-Orange Peel, Serpentary, and Cochineal with 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., dissolving the Extract of Cinchona in the resulting liquid, and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Cocci.— TINCTURE OF COCHINEAL.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Digitalis.— TINCTURE OF DIGITALIS.
Method 2. Preparation from Powdered Digitalis (Digitalis Pulverata). Powdered Digitalis, a quantity containing the equivalent of 438 – 47 grains of the international standard digitalis powder.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Gentianae Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, cut small and bruised……….. 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. ¾ oz.
Cardamom, bruised ………………. ¼ oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Ipecacuanhae.— TINCTURE OF IPECACUANHA.
Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha ………. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Alcohol, 90 p.c., with the Glycerin and 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, adding the Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha and sufficient Distilled Water to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Krameriae.— TINCTURE OF KRAMERIA.
Krameria, in moderately coarse powder . . 4 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Limonis.— TINCTURE OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 5 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c…………………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Lobeliae Aetherea.— ETHEREAL TINCTURE OF LOBELIA.
Lobelia, in moderately coarse powder …. 4 oz.
Spirit of Ether …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; collecting 15 fl. oz. of percolate, pressing the marc and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Spirit of Ether.

Tinctura Myrrh.— TINCTURE OF MYRRH.
Myrrh, crushed ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Myrrh in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c., as directed.

Tinctura Nucis Vomicae.— TINCTURE OF NUX VOMICA.
Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica …1 fl. oz. 320½ m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 10 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Opii Camphorata.— CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM. SYN. TINCTURA OPII BENZOICA I.A.; TINCTURE CAMPHORAE COMPOSITA: COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR: PAREGORIC.
Tincture of Opium ……………….. 1 fl. oz.
Benzoic Acid ……………………. 43¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 26⅓ gr.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 28¾ m.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Benzoic Acid, Camphor, and Oil of Anise, in 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., adding the Tincture of Opium and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c.

Tinctura Quassiae.— TINCTURE OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Quillaiae.— TINCTURE OF QUILLAIA.
Quillaiae, in moderately coarse powder …. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF RHUBARB.
Rhubarb, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder . ½ oz.
Coriander, in moderately coarse powder .. ½ oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; preparing 17 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol, 60 p.c. to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Scillae.— TINCTURE OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.
Tinctura Senega.— TINCTURE OF SENEGA.
Liquid Extract of Senega …………… 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Tolutana.— TINCTURE OF TOLU. SYN. TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Balsam of Tolu in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally adding sufficient Alcohol, 90 p.c. to make 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata.— AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN.
Valerian, in moderately coarse powder…..4 oz.
Oil of Nutmeg …………………… 28¾ m.
Oil of Lemon ……………………. 19¼ m.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 18 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Fortis.— STRONG TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. ESSENCE OF GINGER.
Ginger, in moderately coarse powder …. 10 oz.
Alcohol 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Mitis.— WEAK TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS; TINCTURE OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …………. 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

TROCHISCI.  Lozenge Basis of the General Process.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 35 oz. 120 gr.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz. 205 gr.
Tincture of Tolu …………………. 338 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. q.s.
To be prepared and used in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932, in the preparation of 1,000 lozenges.

Trochiscus Krameriae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA. 
SYN. KRAMERIA LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1000 Lozenges.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Trochiscus Krameriae et Cocainae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA AND COCAINE. SYN. KRAMERIA AND COCAINE LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Cocaine Hydrochloride ……………. 46¼ gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1,000 Lozenges. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Aquosum.— HYDROUS OINTMENT.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 2 fl. oz. 192 m.
Borax …………………………. 43¾ gr.
White Beeswax ………………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
White Soft Paraffin ……………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
Olive Oil ………………………. 5 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Capsici.— OINTMENT OF CAPSICUM. SYN. CAPSICUM OINTMENT.
Capsicum, bruised ……………….. 2½ oz.
Lard …………………………… 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin …………………… 1 oz.
Yellow Soft Paraffin ………………. 7½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Simplex.— SIMPLE OINTMENT,
Wool Fat ………………………. 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin ……………………. 2 oz.
White Soft Paraffin or Yellow Soft Paraffin 17 oz. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Library

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Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 3.
DEHYDRATION

Introduction 3.1
Dehydration as an art is very old, the origins of which are lost in time. As a science, it is relatively young, being little more than 100 years old.

As a process, it is fundamental to most herb growing operations.

The drying phase is the point at which an otherwise satisfactory crop may be ruined; or its economic value considerably reduced, and yet it is the one process which is most often botched with some quite appalling materials appearing in the market place. Herbs intended as medicinal extracts will almost certainly fail in terms of efficacy and metabolite levels. There are many ways in which plant material may be dried. Small quantities may be prepared for domestic use, from domestic resources. This by time honoured methods, such as bunching and hanging in a warm dark place that has suitable ventilation.

The Benefits of Dehydration 3.2
The ownership of a dehydrator confers upon the herb grower a degree of market flexibility which is unmatched by any other branch of horticulture. Some of the benefits are as follows;

The crop is stabilised and may be stored for up to nine months.

There is no necessity to sell the crop onto a glutted market.

The bulk fresh crop is reduced, with good savings on transport.

The crop is greatly increased in value.

The marketing options are considerably expanded.

The Aim of Dehydration 3.3
Good dehydration practice seeks to preserve the herb metabolites in as near to their natural state as possible. Therefore, the water content of the material must be quickly and efficiently reduced to a level where bio chemical reactions cease and micro-organisms are unable to function. The temperatures employed must be so regulated that the metabolite and cosmetic integrity of the material is not damaged. Therefore, the grower must not only have knowledge of dehydration theory and the apparatus employed; but must also understand the characteristics of the material upon which they work.

The Living Herb 3.4
As living entities, herbs are incredibly complex. A single cell, with the addition of a few basic elements, can manufacture in seconds, a dazzling array of intricate compounds; even one of which could take a modern research laboratory many months of painstaking work to reproduce, if indeed they could be reproduced at all. It is well that we remember, that the chemical expertise demonstrated by a single blade of grass is, as yet beyond our knowledge.

There are an estimated 500,000 higher plant species; of which a mere 5% have been screened for bio-active substances. The terminology can be misleading because the screening usually involved a search for a single so called ‘active principle’, such as alkaloids or glycosides which of course scientifically speaking is woefully inadequate given the complexity of a single plant.

Very few of our medicinal plants have been subjected to an in-depth analysis, so it is possible that the baby has already been thrown out with the scientific bath water.

Ginger root contains a volatile oil that represents around 0.5 to 2.5% of its mass. To date well over 80 compounds have been isolated from the oil alone.

The common herb Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), which is found throughout the temperate zones of the world, has yielded so far well in excess of a 100 secondary compounds.

Photosynthesis 3.5

The human brain, so frail, so perishable,so full of inexhaustible dreams and hungers
burns by the power of a leaf.
Loren Eiseley. PhD

The word ‘photosynthesis’, means literally, ‘made from light’ By that ultimate transmutation the green plant may be seen as the servant planetary alchemist. The green plant alone has mastered the secret of the transmutation of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into food. All life forms are dependant on the power of the leaf.

There are certain kinds of bacteria that are classed as autotrophs i.e. able to synthesize food from inorganic molecules such as hydrogen sulphide; however the hydrogen sulphide which is used instead of water, is produced from the breakdown of green plant protein by sulphide bacteria, so they too are dependent on the green plant for life.

Primary and Secondary Compounds 3.6
Primary compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are to be found in all living organisms, whereas the natural distribution of the secondary compounds such as alkaloids and glycosides etc, is more sporadic, however, the secondary compounds are produced in great variety by the green plants. Several thousand of them have been identified, what is surprising is, that they have been synthesised from just 6 major chemical groups.

Science is unable to supply any clear cut answer as to the purpose of the secondary compounds nonetheless they are of vital importance to our well being and health, in that they are able to elicit all known pharmacological responses.

Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 2.

The Harvest Schedules.

Introduction.
The harvest is now a measure of economic productivity, Lines of hieroglyphs that tell a story for the taxman. Pity those that get caught on the banker or chemical company treadmill. For they cannot see the natural alchemy of which they are a part. Our kind has been fecund. It may have been that very fecundity that finally forced the greater part of the nomads into settled lifestyles, and the shaman to change his face, as the Earth moves around the Sun.

The new born agriculture was a momentous leap of intellectual vigour, stimulated by survival instinct. So much to be done. Calendars to be constructed, Pyramids, Ziggurats and Henge’s to be erected, great terraces and earthworks cut. Vast stone instruments, to predict the passage of the chariots of the Gods. Even more intriguing, portable moon calendars carved in bone, and star maps imaged with shells, on a wooden lattice. They knew the world was round. A roundness of cycles into infinity.

No settled community is possible without a calendar to mark out the progression of the seasons. Harvest home was always a time of festivity and feasting, and always sanctified by tribute to the ruling Deity. The people knew that they would survive until the saving onset of Spring. Because they were so close to Nature, they understood that they were dependent, on forces beyond their control. Nothing has changed. A loaded trolley at the supermarket. Nothing has changed. We are still dependent on forces beyond our control. Even the most powerful must kneel. They may be last to kneel, but kneel they must.

Spring is born from the metamorphosis of Autumn and Winter. Autumn is born of the metamorphosis of Spring and Summer. Endless seasons spinning out like a line from the Zodiac spool.

Harvesting and Dehydration Schedules 2.1
Harvesting is carried out when a crop is at peak condition for the purpose of which it is required and as such it is usually a straight forward operation. However herb growers must work within the parameters set by their processing capacity. The capacity is set by the ability to dry and stabilise the crops when they are in peak condition.

Under capacity will result in considerable loss, therefore to avoid complications careful planning is necessary. To determine the dehydration capacity required the grower must set the area to be cultivated and estimate the probable yields of the herbs to be planted. This may be calculated from the data given in part 2. The grower must then know the approximate flowering times of the herbs in order to allocate dehydration time as each specie comes on stream. There are a number of variables that affect the flowering times for different plants.

Climatic Factors 2.2
Climate is the weather pattern for a specific location that will repeat itself season after season. The climate is composed of the following variables;

Temperature range.

Rainfall, the amount and frequency.

The level of humidity.

The duration and intensity of light.

Wind speed and direction.

The variables given are determined in their turn by the following;

Latitude. Longitude.

Altitude. Proximity to the coast

Overall land mass. Natural vegetation.

It is possible within reason to create micro-climates by means of technology or naturally by employing Perma-Culture techniques. (Bill Mollison)

Temperature 2.3
The temperature determines the rate of chemical reaction within living protoplasm. Many herbs of commerce are able to cope with a widely fluctuating range of temperatures. Specific temperature requirements will vary markedly under different growing conditions such as rainfall and duration and intensity of light.

Light Intensity and Duration 2.4
The amount and intensity of light available to a plant is determined by latitude that is then modified by season, cloud cover, atmospheric pollution and the time of day. Most herbs of commerce require a medium to high light intensity.

Light duration or day length varies according to latitude. Table 2.4A indicates day length at various latitudes North and South of the equator.

Table 2.4A

Latitude	Day length	Effect
0°	12 Hours	Short day, long growing period
5°	11.6 to 12.2	Short day, long growing period
10°	11.3 to 12.5	Short day, long growing period
15°	11.0 to 12.8	Short day, long growing period
20°	10.7 to 13.1	Short day, long growing period
25°	10.3 to 13.4	Short day, long growing period
30°	9.9 to 13.8	Short day, long growing period
35°	9.5 to 14.2	Long day, short growing period
40°	9.0 to 14.7	Long day, short growing period

Many plants are so sensitive to day length that they may be induced to flower by manipulating the hours of light and dark to which they are exposed. This phenomenon is called photoperiodism.

Therefore plants may be classified according to their reaction ie. Day Neutral, Day Short or Day Long. In fact it is the hours of darkness that are critical for the flowering of short or day long plants.

Water Requirements 2.5
As a rule of thumb herbs will need less water than vegetable crops and usually exhibit good resistance to drought conditions, however to realise their potential, they will need water at regular intervals.

In areas of uncertain rainfall during the growing season it may be necessary to resort to irrigation. In such cases the grower should be prepared to deliver an average of 18mm of water per fortnight. That is equivalent to 180,000 litres or 180 cubic metres per hectare. That equates to 16,023 imperial gallons or 19,242 U.S. gallons per acre.

The amount of water actually delivered must be based on the growers own judgement. The herbs should be given water when seen to be necessary, ie at planting and thereafter to maintain growth. Irrigation once commenced should be continued at regular intervals unless rain intervenes. Herbs as a rule require far less water than our food crops.

The amount of water given should be tapered off around 4 to 5 weeks before harvest; this conditions the herb and promotes favourable dehydration.

The most water critical period is within 3 weeks of planting. Undue water stress during that time will give rise to weak and stunted plants.

Wind Shelter 2.6
Wind speeds high enough to cause visible physical damage are the exception rather than the rule. Moderate prevailing winds are equally damaging but much more insidious, culminating in a significant loss of yield due to stunting of growth.

Prevailing winds lower the ambient temperature and humidity levels which in turn facilitates the stripping of moisture from the soil and plant. The immediate effect is wind chill; the evaporation of moisture causes a quick drop in the temperature of the plant and surrounding soil, which if prolonged, will lead to water stress. These sudden fluctuations are not conducive to the thrift and health of the plant therefore wind shelter should be considered mandatory.

Latitude, Longitude and Altitude 2.7
Taken individually or in combination, latitude, longitude and altitude have a direct bearing on climate, and as such, strongly influence flowering times.

1° (degree) of latitude equals 109 km approximately.

1° (degree) of longitude equals 111 km approximately.

The equator is 0° of latitude.

For each degree of latitude North or South of the equator, flowering is retarded by 4 days.

From East to West each 5° of longitude will advance flowering by 4 days

For each rise of 125 metres above sea level flowering will be retarded by 4 days.

Table 2.7A will enable you to arrive at a reasonable estimate of flowering times for your area.

 

Harvesting for Quality 2.8
Over the past few decades many of the plants, which are of commercial importance to the pharmaceutical and flavouring industries, have undergone scientific scrutiny to determine optimal harvesting times for particular end use requirements.

Predictably investigations have confirmed that the levels and composition of secondary metabolites are subject to seasonal variations of climate, nutrients and the maturity of the plant. It is reassuring to note that the scientific findings validate many centuries of empirical knowledge.

It may be seen in table 2.7A that considerable latitude is shown for the harvesting of the species listed. This is accounted for by the plant part required, and also the habit of the regrowth displayed by plants harvested for shoots or flowering tops, where 2 or 3 cuts may be taken in a season.

Harvesting the Root 2.9
Autumn and early spring are the times designated for the harvesting of medicinal roots. By early or late autumn most herbs will have completed their seasonal cycle and against a background of falling air and soil temperatures the root commences to transfer residual materials from leaf and stem. The materials are stored by the root and then used to fuel spring growth.

As the transfer proceeds the aerial part of the plant commences to die back. When the die back is complete the metabolism slows down and the root enters a dormant phase. Roots specified for autumn collection are harvested at the end of the second season, that allows the root or tuber to properly develop.

Roots designated for spring harvest are dug at the commencement of the third season. Unless a buyer specifies otherwise the root must be dug before it breaks dormancy otherwise the ensuing enzyme activity will materially alter the composition and levels of the secondary metabolites.

Harvesting the Leaf 2.10
Leaf only drug plants are usually alkaloid or glycoside producers with a potent and potentially lethal effect on heart, lungs or central nervous system. They are listed in most National Poison Schedules and hedged about by restrictions. Before cultivating such plants it would be prudent to consult with the appropriate authorities.

Most national pharmacopoeias and dispensatories contain detailed monographs of such plants and will usually specify the collection time. The individual leaves are collected by hand at their maximum point of growth. That point may be taken as the first indication of bud form. Buds and flowers are modified leaves, when the first modification is noted, harvesting should commence. The leaves should be collected when the dew has dried and taken from the bottom up, ignoring any damaged basal or immature leaves.

Individual leaves are laid flat on trays or baskets. Care must be taken to ensure that ferment heating does not occur.

Harvesting the Whole Herb above ground 2.11
The harvesting of whole herb is the rule rather than the exception for extraction purposes. The required metabolites are generally distributed throughout the plant. In line with the timing for leaves, the herb is taken just on bud break at it’s maximum point of growth.

There are some few exceptions, i.e. Atropa belladonna is sometimes harvested when in first fruit, or Henbane and Thorn Apple, which are harvested when in flower. Such variations are usually the subject of monographs in a pharmacopoeia.

Plants should be cut just above the woody part of the stem. Upon harvesting the herb should be quickly transported to the processing area so that undue chemical changes are avoided. Large quantities of fresh cut herb bruise and sweat easily and will speedily succumb to ferment heating.

Harvesting the Flower 2.12
The harvesting of flowers should commence on a dry day when the dew has dried. The flower should be picked when fully open but not blown. Damaged or blown blooms should be discarded. Most flower petals are 90% water, very delicate and easily bruised, such damage results in oxidation and ferment problems causing discolouration and loss of volatile principles. If petals only are required it will be more convenient and result in less damage if the petals are removed from the calyx after they have undergone drying.

Harvesting the Seed 2.13
Harvesting the of seed crops closely follows that of the food grain crops. The herb is cut when the seed is just on ripe i.e. at the first colour change from green. The herb is bundled and arranged in shocks and allowed to sun dry and ripen. It is then threshed and winnowed.

Harvesting the Bark 2.14
Bark is usually harvested in the spring when the sap-run is fresh and strong. It is detrimental to the health of a tree to remove bark from the trunk. The best procedure is to remove a suitably sized branch and strip the bark from that. Take care to paint the wound on the tree with a preparation of a natural resin or wax to seal out pathogens. Take the branch from the tree sun side. Sunlight inhibits fungal growth.

Harvesting of non standard parts 2.15
Certain types of herbal preparations require that they be manufactured from the whole plant at a specific stage of growth e.g. root, leaf and flower, in which case the whole plant should be harvested in line with the directions given in Para 2.12. If the requirements are for root, leaf and fruit, then the herb should be harvested when the berries are just on ripe.

Post Harvest Procedures 2.16
At the point of harvest far reaching changes are set in motion; the living herb starts to die. Bio-chemical reactions such as autolysis commence. The cellular breakdown is closely followed by invasion of micro-organisms. This intense chemical activity unless checked will render the herbal material useless for medical purposes, or as is more usual, the potency and efficiency of the herb is badly compromised. Therefore post harvest procedures must be swift and efficient. Enzyme activity can only occur in the presence of water, the sooner the material is subjected to the drying process the better. There are some exceptions to this general rule, those exceptions in the main are comprised of beverages and flavourings such as tea, cocoa beans, vanilla pods; or industrial ware such as woad; perfumery items like orris and the recreational drug nicotine. The two major exceptions for materials that are used medicinally are lavender and gentian root.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Root 2.17
Medicinal roots are harvested in the same manner as that applied to the food root crops. Care should be taken to ensure that the roots are not unduly bruised or damaged in the process. The root once dug must be separated form the soil and other adhering matter. The method used will depend upon soil type.

Light sandy soils can usually be removed by light brushing or agitation and sifting whereas heavier soils will need to be removed by the mechanical action of water. Modern methods involve the use of revolving drums and high pressure water sprays. Traditional methods included immersion in water troughs prior to brushing and rinsing or the roots were packed into sacks and suspended in a running creek or steam.

Once the root is clean hair roots and damaged parts must be trimmed off and any diseased or wormy roots disposed of. If the end use requires that the root be scraped then it should be done at this stage. With a few exception, whole roots are rarely encountered in commerce. The reasons are technically based; whole roots are notoriously difficult to dry in a satisfactory manner; they require a long and therefore deleterious drying time producing unwanted bio-chemical reactions which are accelerated by mechanical reactions such as root splitting and case hardening. Those problems may be eliminated by chopping, slicing or dicing the root prior to dehydration. The loading trays should be held ready for use and then moved to the dehydrator with all possible speed.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Leaf 2.18
Leaves must be carefully examined for the following;

Insect damage. Insect eggs or infestation. Bird excreta. Disease or fungal infection. Tissue damage.
Damaged or contaminated leaves should be discarded. The undersides of bottom leaves may be flecked with mud, splatter from heavy rain. Do not attempt to clean the leaves while they are in the fresh state, dry the leaves first and the mud may be easily removed by sieving. Leaves for drying should be threaded on string or thin rods. If they are to be dried on trays then they should be laid flat in a single layer, otherwise blackening will occur during the process.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Whole Herb 2.19
Each plant should be examined for damage or contamination as listed in Para 2.18. Any damaged material should be removed from the plant and disposed of. The initial inspection must be thorough, damaged material will considerably lower the crop value, whilst insect eggs can lead to infestation problems during storage

When the crop has been cleaned it should be cut or chopped into 2.5cm pieces. This ensures easy tray loading and even drying and the simplification of subsequent processing procedures. The drying trays may be loaded to a depth of 5cm.

Post Harvest Procedures. The Flower 2.20
Flowers should be scrutinised for insects, caterpillars and eggs. If this procedure is skimped then infestation during storage is the inevitable result. Rose and Calendula flowers being particularly prone. It is always best to remove petals from the Calyx after dehydration. This may be done by rubbing and sifting the material across a suitable screen.

Post Harvest Procedures. General Points 2.21
Observation will demonstrate that the herbs cycle of growth is closely related to the lunar cycle, and that the major biological surges occur on or around the full moon. The full moon is used as a harvesting marker. For reasons both economic, and scale of operation, it is not practical to process a complete crop in one dehydration run. Therefore the grower must accept a quality trade off in order to extend the harvesting period.

A good quality crop may be obtained by working to a seven day cycle, i.e. harvesting may commence 3 days before a full moon and terminate 3 days after. Obviously such considerations do not apply to root crops which are harvested in the dormant phase.

Provision of Drying Surface 2.22
A major factor affecting dehydration capacity is the area and type of drying surface available. Fixed drying surfaces such as shelves or racks are a serious drain on time and labour and add considerably to damage and leaf shatter when a crop is handled. The use of portable drying trays will eliminate the problems. A 1 metre x 1 metre tray allows for speedy manipulation at the load and unload points. If it becomes necessary to turn the herb to dry wet spots then that may be done by placing an empty tray on top of a loaded one and then turning the trays over. The savings in labour unit hours across one season are considerable.

A 1 metre x 1 metre drying tray will hold on average;

Chopped Herb – 2 to 3 kg. Chopped Root – 3 to 4 kg. Flowers or Petals – 0.5 to1.5 kg.

With experience, an operator can accurately load by sight and compensate for dehydrator quirks.

The Dehydration Schedule 2.23
The growers dehydration capacity must bear some relationship to the area under cultivation if economic loss is to be avoided. That relationship may be determined by compiling a dehydration schedule. As a planning tool it will allow the grower to forecast the following information.
When the dehydrator is in use and for how long. Peak loading times and potential bottlenecks. The amount of drying surface required for the crop.

Once the type of crop and size of cultivation has been decided then the schedule should be compiled. The schedule can be designed to yield greater or lesser data according to need.

The following example table is based on a 1 hectare cultivation laid out to 5 species on an equal land basis, ie 2000m² per specie.

Table 2.23A

 

Key to columns	Data source	Key to column A
[A] Plant part required	Table 2.7A	[2] Whole Herb
[B] Fresh yield 2000m²	Extrapolated Table 1.2B	[3] Root
[C] Drying surface as m²	Extrapolated Para 2.22	[4] Flower
[D] Drying ratio	Table 1.2A	***
[E] Dry yield	Table 1.2B	***

N.B. It may be seen from the table that there are overlaps in the harvesting periods, with peak demand in mid summer. The amount of drying surface required is divided across a 7 day period with two or three dehydration runs per 24 hours.

For example let us take the data shown in the table, as it relates to Lemon Balm.

Column A. Whole Herb.

Column B. Fresh Yield. …………….. 2040 Kg.

From Para 2.22 it will be seen that a 1 x 1 metre drying tray will hold between 2 and 3 Kg. Average 2.5 Kg.

Therefore 2040 Kg ÷ by 2.5 Kg = 816 metre² of drying surface required.

816 metre² ÷ by 7 days = 116.57 metre² of drying surface to be provided on a daily basis, to dehydrate the crop.

Chapter 3

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Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

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Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 4 Part 2

The Measure of Things 4.15
Measurements are fundamental to every sphere of human activity. By measure of the greatest to the smallest, we may see the symmetry of things and their relationship to each other irrespective of scale.

Standing at the kerbside, the eye measures, at the brains command; converging vehicle speed, height of kerb to roadside, speed required to cross safely. Go or stay. Multiple calculations of measure at the speed of light. No margin of error, a mistake could be terminal.

In a supermarket aisle reaching for a packet, or scaling a mountain , multiple internal measures, without which, we could not function at the level of complexity required of the human condition.

Our internal measures are unique, as we as individuals are. Moreover our scales of measurement must cope with the exigency of gestation to old age. Quite clearly measurement and number are the first requirement of a civilisation, if it is to function as a higher organism within the whole. A standard measure is created and adhered to. In this way we may refer to a ‘head of state or the ‘military arm’ when speaking of these complex higher organisms of State which are only made possible by number and measure.

There are many different systems of measurement in use throughout the world, with each one having its own standard, the standard being a specific measure to which other things are compared. It will be appreciated that conversion tables, although necessary, are time consuming, cumbersome and prone to user error. In the context of chemistry, medicine or pharmacy, an error could have tragic consequences. Teach yourself the Metric System.

 

The rapid global expansion of science and technology meant that a coherent global system of units was not only desirable, but very necessary. From 10 fingers and 10 toes, it is not a great intellectual leap to one of our earliest counting machines, the ‘Abacus’ which still finds widespread use in the West for the teaching of place and number in units of 1 to 10.

The Metric System 4.16
The metric or decimal system has a number base of 10. The conversion of related units is convenient because only the decimal point is moved either left or right as the units change.

A coherent metric system was first proposed in Lyon, France around 1690. Just over 100 years later the system was standardised by the Paris Academy of Sciences, and was finally legalised in 1801. Since that time it has undergone various revisions, which are carried out by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

We are able to make sense of very large numbers by the use of Powers, Prefix and symbol. For example, a metric billion means 1000 000 000 000 (1 million, million). We may write that number by the use of Power. A billion has 12 zero,s and is written 10¹² . One million (1000 000) has 6 zero,s and is written 10⁶. We operate in the same way when dealing with very small numbers, except the decimal point moves to the left and is designated as the negative power and is indicated by a negative sign. E.g. 1 millionth part of (0.000 001) is written 10^-6

Powers of 10. Table 4.16A

Symbol	Number	Prefix	Meaning	Power
M	1000 000	mega	million	106
k	1000	Kilo	thousand	10³
h	100	hecto	hundred	10²
da	10	decca	ten	10¹
d	0.1	deci	tenth	10-1
c	0.01	centi	hundredth	10-2
m	0.001	milli	thousandth	10-3
µ	0.000 001	micro	millionth	10-6

Number, Power and Indices 4.17
If a number is multiplied by itself, it has been raised to the power of 2, (for example 3 x 3) and may be written as 3², or if it is raised to the power of 3, (eg. 3 x 3 x 3), it may be written 3³ The small number to the right of the of the main number is called the ‘power’ or ‘index’ which states the number of times that a number must be multiplied by itself.

If a number is raised to the power of 2, it is said to be ‘squared’, eg., the area of a house or land is 10 square metres, it can be written as 10² or 10 metre² .

If a number is raised to the power of 3, it is said to be ‘cubed’ eg, the volume occupied by a house is 50 cubic metres, and written, 50³ or 50 metre³

Negative Power or Index 4.18
The negative power indicates how many times a given number must be divided into unity or 1.

Example 3^-3 means 1 ÷ 3 ÷ 3 ÷ 3, which equals 0.037;

Another example, 10^-3 means 1 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 = 0.001.

It may be seen that with negative powers, the decimal point moves to the left of the conversion factor, by the number of places indicated by the index, or power number.

Multiplying by Power 4.19
The same principle applies when multiplying by powers, except the decimal point moves to the right. A comprehensive set of conversion tables will be given, however be warned that the universal scientific notation is metric based. Learn the Metric System!

The International System of Units 4.20
Since 1960 the metric system has been undergoing a gradual refinement of the units used, with the aim of securing uniformity. The new system is called the International System of Units, which is usually abbreviated to S.I. Units.

The importance of the S.I. System cannot be overstated because we can communicate core concepts of any activity in precision language. For the population at large, and for all practical purposes, we can consider the Metric and S.I. systems as identical.

Physical and Base Quantities 4.21

I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers,
you know something about it; but when you cannotexpress it in numbers, your knowledge of it is
of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely,
in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of science, in whatever the matter may be.
William Thomson, 1st Baron, Lord Kelvin.

Lord Kelvin was a British Physicist, who amongst other things formulated the second law of thermodynamics in 1850. He also introduced an absolute temperature scale, the units of which were named the Kelvin.

The S.I. Units can be described as universal currency of concepts, in which inflation or devaluation are not allowed, unless by international agreement. The base unit must accord with whatever is being counted or measured, for instance; give me 100 dollars worth of apples is meaningless, in the context of the number of apples that are purchased.

If, however, $100 will buy 50 kilogram of apples, we then know something about the mass of apples, but nothing about the mass of a single apple. The kilogram is the base unit for mass, therefore, the mass of an individual apple would be a sub-multiple of the kilo-gram, and would be expressed as ‘x’ number of grams.

There are currently 7 base quantities which are defined by the S.I.System. 

Table 4.21A Base Quantities and Units

Base Quantity	Unit Name	Unit Symbol
Length	metre	m
Mass	kilogram	kg
Thermodynamic Temperature	Kelvin	K
Time	second	s
Electric Current	ampere	A
Luminous Intensity	candela	cd
Amount of Substance	mole	mol

If we wish to know the volume of the mass, then it would be necessary to use a different base unit, in this case the metre ³ ; the volume would then be expressed as a sub multiple of the metre, i.e. centimetres or millimetres cubed. Such units are known as derived units.

Table 4.21B. Selected Derived Units S.I. System.

Physical Quantity	Derived Unit	Symbol
Area	square metre	m2
Volume	cubic metre	m3
Density (mass)	kilogram /cubic metre	kg/m3
Velocity	metre per second	m/s
Pressure	Pascal	Pa
Thermal Conductivity	watt per metre degree Kelvin	w/ (m-K )
Concentration	mole per cubic metre	mol/m3
Energy, Heat Quantity	Joule	J
Power, Radiant Flux	Watt	W
Heat Flux Density	Watt per square metre	W/m2
Specific Heat Capacity	Joule per kg Kelvin	J/kg/K

N.B. A Pascal = Newton /metre ³

Conversion Factors 4.22
The tables that follow and the values given are those of the International System of Units. (S.I.)

Table 4.22A

Length	cm	metre	km	in	ft	mile
1 centimetre	1	10 -2	10 -5	0.3937	3.281 x 10 -2	6.214 x 10 -6
1 metre	100	1	10 -3	39.37	3.281	6.214 x 10 -4
1 kilometre	10 5	1000	1	3.967 x 104	3281	0.6214
1 inch	2.540	0.3937	3.937 x 104	1	8.333 x 10 -2	1.578 x 10 -5
1 foot	30.48	0.3048	3.048 x 10 4	12	1	1.894 x 10 -4
1 statute    mile	1.609 x 10 5	1609	1.609	6.336 x 104	5280	1

Table 4.22B

Area	metre²	cm²	ft²	in²
1 square metre	10-2	0.3937	3.281 x 10-2	6.214 x 10-2
1 square centimetre	10-4	1	1.076 x 10-3	0.1550
1 square foot	9.290 x 10-4	929.0	1	144
1 square inch	6.452 x 10-4	6.452	6.944 x 10-3	1

Table 4.22C

Volume	metre 3	cm³	litre	Ft ³	in³
1 cubic metre	1	10 6	1000	35.31	6.102 x 10 4
1 centimetre ³	10 -6	1	1.000 x 10-3	3.531 x 10-5	6.102 x 10-2
1 litre	1.000 x 10-3	1000	1	3.531 x 10 -2	61.02
1 cubic foot	2.832 x 10 -2	2.832 x 10 4	28.32	1	1728
1 cubic inch	1.639 x 10-5	16.39	1.639 x 10-2	5.787 x 10 -4	1

Table 4.22D

Speed	ft/s	km/hr	m/s	miles/hr	cm/s
1 foot per second	1	1.097	0.3048	0.6818	30.48
1 kilometre per hour	0.9113	1	0.2778	0.6214	27.78
1 metre per second	3.281	3.6	1	2.237	100
1 mile per hour	1.467	1.609	0.4470	1	44.70
1 centimetre second	3.281 x 10 G ²	3.6 x 10 G ²	0.01	2.237 x 10 G ²	1

Table 4.22E

Pressure	atm	cm Hg	Pa	lb/in ²
1 atmosphere	1	76	1.013 x 105	14.70
1 cm mercury at 0°C	1.316 x 10-2	1	1333	0.1934
1 Pascal	9.869 x 10-6	7.501 x 10-4	1	1.450 x 10-4
1 lb per inch	6.805 x 10-2	5.171	6.895 x 103	1

Table 4.22F

Power	BTU/hr	hp	Cal/s	kw	Watts
1 BTU/hr	1	3.929 x 10-4	7.000 x 10-2	2.930 x 10-4	0.2930
1 horsepower	2545	1	178.2	0.7457	745.7
1 calorie/s	14.29	5.613 x 10-3	1	4.186 x 10-3	4.186
1 kilowatt	3413	1.341	238.9	1	1000
1 Watt	3.413	1.341 x 10-3	0.2389	0.001	1

Table 4.22G

Energy	Btu	hp/hr	Joule	cal	kW/hr
1 Btu	1	3.929 x 10-4	1055	252	2.930 x 10-4
1 Horsepower	2524	1	2.685 x 106	6.414 x 105	0.7457
1 Joule	9.481 x 10-4	3.725 x 10-7	1	0.2389	2.778 x 10-7
1 Calorie	3.968 x 10-3	1.559 x 10-6	4.186	1	1.163 x 10-6
1 kilowatt hour	3413	1.341	3.6 x 106	8.601 x 105	1

Miscellaneous Factors 4.23

p or pi ,is the 16th letter of the Greek alphabet, and is used as a math symbol that denotes the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter i.e. p = 3.14159.

The diameter of a circle is a straight line from edge to edge, passing through the centre. The radius of a circle is half the diameter. The circumference is the distance around the edge of a complete circle.

Figure 4.23A

r = radius

D = diameter

C = circumference

The Area of a circle. = p r² = 3.14159 x square of radius.

Example. Assume the radius of a circle is 25cm, then the calculation is; r² = r x r = 25 x 25 = 625cm therefore, the area of the circle is 3.14159 x 625 = 1963.49cm².

The volume of a cylinder = p ² x height = p x height x r², in other words, the area of 1 end x height.

Example. The height of a drum or cylinder is 100cm, then the calculation is; Area = 1963.49 x 100 = 196349cm³.

When measuring area, 2 dimensional space is measured.

When measuring volume, 3 dimensional space is measured.

Example. The area of a rectangle is length x breadth = area. The volume of a cube is length x breadth x height.

Chapter 4 part 3

 

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Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

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Essential Anatomic Terms 
and Anatomic Images 
1      2      3      4      5      6      7     8

 

 
Aponeurosis: expanded tendon for the attachment of a flat muscle..   Artery (a.): a vessel carrying blood from the heart through the body.   Articulation: connection between bones.   Autonomic nervous system: for the innervation of smooth muscle, heart muscle, and glands, consisting of a craniosacral (parasympathetic) and thoracolumbar (sympathetic) portion.  
Belly: fleshy part of a muscle.   Body: broadest or longest mass of a bone.   Bone: inflexible structure composing skeleton.  
Capillary: anatomic units connecting the arterial and venous systems; minute vessels, func­tional units of the circulatory system.   Cartilage: substance from which some bone ossifies; gristle.   Cell: the structural and functional body unit.   Central nervous system (C.N.S.): the brain and spinal cord.   Condyle: polished articular surface, usually rounded.   Crest: ridge or border.  
Diaphysis: the shaft of a long cylindrical bone..  
Eminence: low convexity just perceptible.   Endocrine: internal secretion without the use of glandular ducts.     Epicondyle: elevation near and above a condyle.   Epiphyseal plate (line): growth center for elongation of bone, found between shaft and extremities of the bone.   Epiphysis: the extremity or head of a long bone.   Exocrine: secretion discharged by way of a duct system.  
Facet: small articular area, often a pit.   Fascia: fibrous envelopment of muscle structures and other tissues.   Foramen: hole, perforation.   Fossa: shallow depression.  
Ganglion: group of nerve cell bodies outside the central nervous system.   
Head: enlarged round end of a long bone; knob.  
Insertion: relatively movable part of a muscle attachment.  
Joint: connection between bones.  
Ligament: fibrous tissue binding bones together or holding tendons and muscles in place.   Lymph vessels: like veins but walls are thinner and valves more numerous; drain tissue spaces.  
Mesentery: a double layer of peritoneum (mesothelium), usually supporting organs.   Muscle (m.): contractile organ capable of producing movement.  
Neck: constriction of a bone near head.   Nerve (n.): a group of fibers outside the central nervous system.   Neuron: nerve cell body plus its processes.   Nucleus: group of nerve cell bodies within the central nervous system.  
Omentum: a fold of peritoneum connecting abdominal viscera with the stomach.   Organ: 2 or more tissues grouped together to perform a highly specialized function.   Origin: relatively fixed part of a muscle attachment.  
Peripheral nervous system (P.N.S.): cerebrospinal nerves and the peripheral parts of the autonomic nervous system.   Process: projection (can be grasped with fingers).   Protuberance: a swelling (can be felt under fingers).  
Ramus: plate like branch of a bone; branch of a vessel or nerve.   Ramus communicans: a nerve branch from the anterior root of a spinal nerve to the sympa­thetic chain of ganglia; white-nerve to chain; gray-chain back to spinal nerve.  
Shaft: body of a long bone.   Sheath: protective covering.   Spine: pointed projection or sharp ridge.   Suture: interlocking of teeth like edges.   Symphysis: union of right and left sides in the midline.   System: group of organs acting together to perform a highly complex but specialized function, such as nervous, skeletal, muscular, circulatory, respiratory, digestive, urinary, endocrine, and reproductive.   Tendon: fibrous tissue securing a muscle to its attachment.   Tissue: differentiation and specialization of groups of cells bound together to perform a special function, e.g., epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.   Trochanter: 1 or 2 processes on the upper part of the femur below neck.   Trochlea: spool-shaped articular surface.   Tubercle: small bump (can be felt under finger).   Tuberosity: large and conspicuous bump.  
Vein (v): a vessel returning blood to the heart.       Anatomical Terms of Direction and Movement.
    Abduction (abd.): draws away from midline.   Adduction (add.): draws toward the midline. Anatomic position: standing erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward.   Anterior (ant.) or ventral (vent.): situated before or in front  
Corrugator: that which wrinkles skin, draws skin in.  
Deep: farther from the surface (in a solid form).   Depressor: that which lowers.   Distal (dist.): farther from the root.   Dorsal (dors.): toward the rear, back; also back of hand and top of foot.  
Erector: that which draws upward.   Evert (ever.): turn outward (as foot at ankle joint).   Extension (ext.): straightening.   External (extern.): outside, refers to wall of cavity or hollow form).  
Flexion (flex.): bending or angulation.   Frontal (front.) or coronal (coron.): vertical; at right angles to sagittal; divides body into anterior and posterior parts  
Horizontal (horiz.): at right angles to vertical.  
Inferior (inf.): lower, farther from crown of head.   Internal (int.): inside (refers to wall of cavity or hollow form).   Inverted (invert.): turned inward (as foot at ankle joint).  
Lateral (lat.): .): farther from midline (or center plane).   Levator (lev.): that which raises.   Longitudinal (longit.): refers to long axis.  
Medial (med.): nearer to midline (or center plane).   Median: midway, being in the middle   Midline: divides body into a right and left side.   Midsagittal: vertical plane at midline dividing body into right and left halves  
Palmar (palm.) or volar (vol.): palm side of hand   Plantar (plant.): sole side of foot   Posterior (post.) or dorsal (dors.): rear or back   Pronator (pronat.): that which turns palm of hand downward.   Prone: forearm and hand turned palm side down; body lying face down.   Proximal (prox.): nearer to limb root.  
Rotator (rotat.): that which causes to revolve  
Sagittal (sagit.): vertical plane or section dividing body into right and left portions.   Sphincter: that which regulates closing of aperture.   Superficial (superf.): nearer to surface (refers to solid form).   Superior (sup.): upper, nearer to crown of head.   Supinator (supinat.): that which turns palm of hand upward.   Supine: forearm and hand turned palm side up; body lying face up.  
Tensor (tens.): that which draws tight   Transverse (trans.): at right angles to long axis; body divided into upper and lower parts.   Ventral (vent.) or anterior (ant.): situated before or in front of.   Vertical (vert.): refers to long axis in erect position.   Volar (vol.) or palmar (palm.): palm side of hand.   Library

Anatomic Images
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Denstons Textbook of Pharmacognosy.
Compiled by Ivor Hughes

Part 2 of 2.

OIL OF ROSEMARY
Official Source: The flowering plant, Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. Fam.: Labiatae.
Geographical Source: S. France, and the islands off the Dalmatian coast.
Preparation: By distillation in steam.
Constituents: Borneol, 8 -18 %, official requirement being not less than 9-0 per cent w/w. Bornyl Acetate, 1-6 %, the official requirement being not less than 2-0 per cent w/w. Cineole, limited by an official test to an apparent content of 33-0 % Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes pinene and camphene, and camphor.
Adulteration: Both French and Dalmatian oil normally satisfy the official requirements. The chief substitute is an impure or commercial oil produced in large amounts in Spain by distilling together rosemary, spike lavender, and a high proportion of sage—spike lavender yielding an oil rich in borneol, and sage yielding an oil with an ester content of 6-20 per cent. Hence Spanish oil of Rosemary contains alcohols (chiefly borneol) and esters, and usually fulfils the official requirements. The optical rotation of oil of rosemary is officially – 5° to + 10°, that of oil of sage + 70° to + 24°, hence Spanish oil of rosemary usually has an optical rotation higher than that of genuine oil; this, with other factors, serves to detect substitution. Oil of camphor has also been reported as an adulterant; it is detected by the limit test for cineole.

 

OIL OF SANDALWOOD (East-Indian Sandalwood Oil)
Botanical Source: The heartwood of Santalum album Linn. Fam.: Santalaceae.
Geographical Source: India (principally Mysore).
Preparation: By slow distillation in steam or with water, the process taking a considerable time for completion owing to the density of the wood; yield 2-5 per cent.
Constituents: Santalol sesquiterpene alcohols, with other alcohols totaling 92-98 per cent, the B.P.C. requirement being not less than 90 per cent w/w. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes, santalene, and esters, chiefly santalyl acetate, about 2 per cent.
Adulteration: The standard of not less than 90 per cent of alcohols calculated as santalol ensures rejection of grossly adulterated oil. The principal adulterant is castor oil, which is not easily detected in small proportions, as its solubility in alcohol and its viscosity are similar to those of sandalwood oil.
Other adulterants: sometimes, oil of cedar wood, oil of copaiba, benzyl alcohol, and glyceryl acetate.

4. Oils containing Aldehydes.

 

Principle of Estimation
The estimation of Aldehydes is based on the fact that hydroxylamine combines quantitatively with aldehydes to form aldoximes –

C₉H₁₅CHO + H₂NOH, HC1    –» C₉H₁₅CHNOH + HC1 + H₂O
Citral              Hydroxylamine        Citraldoxim
                        hydrochloride

A known weight of oil is shaken in a stoppered tube with a known excess of an alcoholic solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride which has been rendered first yellow^* to methyl orange. The above reaction occurs partially with liberation of hydrochloric acid, and change in colour to red. Semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide is added to change the colour to yellow. Upon further shaking, more aldehyde combines and the red colour re-appears and is again discharged. This shaking and neutralization is repeated until the yellow colour of the lower layer remains unchanged after 2 minutes of vigorous shaking, followed by separation of the oil, indicating that all the aldehyde has combined. The total volume of semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide needed for the above processes is noted and gives an approximate value for the aldehyde. The test is repeated using as the standard for the end-point the reaction mixture obtained previously, to which a defined excess of semi-normal solution of potassium hydroxide has been added. The result is calculated from the second determination (vide B.P., Appendix XI).

^* The solution contains, as a result, a small proportion of free hydroxylamine. The latter is a weak base, the pH of the hydrochloride being 3-2. The orange colour range of methyl orange lies between pH 2-9-4-0, hence if a neutral solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride were used in the test, adjustment to the particular shade of orange corresponding to pH 3-2 would be necessary. This is difficult, hence a constant error is introduced by starting with a solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride at about pH 9-0 (the pale yellow of methyl orange) and finishing at the same point—in this way an accurate end-point is obtained without affecting the result.

OIL OF CINNAMON
Official Source : The dried inner bark of coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylandicum Nees, and is known in commerce as Ceylon Cinnamon.
Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield about 0-5-1-0 per cent.
Constituents : Cinnamic Aldehyde, 58-76 per cent, the official requirement being 55-0-70-0 per cent w/w.
Eugenol, 4-8 per cent. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes cymene and caryophyllene
Tests and Adulteration : The two most important chemical tests are —
1. Determination of aldehyde (vide B.P., Appendix XI).
2. Limit-test for Eugenol. This test is designed to detect adulteration of oil of cinnamon with cinnamon leaf oil or cassia oil: the test is —

0.l ml. dissolved in 10 ml. of alcohol (90 per cent) assumes a slight green, but not a deep brown or blue coloration, on the addition of 0-1 ml. of test-solution of ferric chloride. Eugenol alone, and also cinnamon leaf oil which is rich in it, gives a blue colour with ferric chloride; cassia oil and its principal constituent cinnamic aldehyde gives a brown colour; the official oil of cinnamon, which contains both, produces a pale green colour, the test being, in effect, a limit-test for eugenol.

The high price of the oil has led to considerable adulteration and substitution, which chemical examination may fail to detect. The two principal adulterants are —
1. A factitious oil prepared by mixing suitable proportions of —
(a) Artificial cinnamic aldehyde, to give the correct content of this.
(b) Cinnamon leaf oil, which consists largely of eugenol, and is therefore quite different in composition from the official oil prepared from the bark. The latter contains from 4 to 8 per cent only of eugenol, which, in the factitious oil, is supplied by a suitable proportion of cinnamon leaf oil.
(c) Genuine oil of cinnamon to modify the odour of the above two constituents, and thereby make the product simulate genuine oil.

This factitious oil answers the official quantitative test for cinnamic aldehyde, and also the above qualitative test for limit of eugenol.

2. Cassia oil, obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum Cassia Blume, which contains about 75—90 per cent of cinnamic aldehyde, but no eugenol, hence the colour produced with test-solution of ferric chloride is brown. The adulteration of oil of cinnamon with a large proportion of oil of cassia would be revealed by an abnormally high content of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the failure to give the characteristic pale green colour in the qualitative test. The addition of 20 per cent or less of oil of cassia cannot usually be detected by either test, as the cinnamic aldehyde is not necessarily outside the official range, and with the qualitative test the intensity of the green colour, though reduced, is not masked.

From the above it will be seen that a factitious oil, or genuine oil containing less than 20 per cent of oil of cassia may fulfill the official chemical requirements, and considerable reliance must be placed on odour. The official oil contains a small proportion of substances not present in either the factitious oil or oil of cassia, and these substances modify the odour of the cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol, rendering it distinctively delicate by comparison.

OIL OF LEMON
Botanical Source : Sicily, Spain, Portugal, Italy and California.
Preparation : By expression, yield about 0-8 gm. per lemon.
Constituents : Citral — 4-5-5-0 per cent, the official requirement being not less than 4-0 per cent of aldehydes calculated as citral. Traces of other aldehydes, e.g. octyl aldehyde, monyl aldehyde, and esters, e.g. geranyl and linalyl acetates, are also present, and no doubt slightly modify the odour. Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes d-limonene (citrene) 80 per cent, accompanied by a small proportion of l-limonene and sesquiterpenes. Machine-made oil is usually inferior in odour and taste and has a lower citral content and an appreciable proportion of resinous substances.
Tests : The principal test is the estimation of the aldehydes.

Mention has been made of terpeneless oils, of which terpeneless oil of lemon is the principal, being produced in large amounts. The terpenes separated in this process play an important part in the adulteration of oil of lemon. As obtained from lemons, the oil contains upwards of 5-5 %^* of aldehydes, and one method of adulteration commonly practiced is to dilute the oil to a 4 per cent content (the B.P. minimum) with these terpenes. The product still fulfils all the official requirements, and detection is impossible because the diluent is a normal constituent of oil of lemon.

* From winter-collected lemons; summer-collected lemons yield less.

Another method of adulteration is the admixture of citral from other sources, e.g. oil of lemon grass with the above-mentioned lemon terpenes, to give a product containing 4 per cent of citral. An admixture of this factitious oil with genuine oil of lemon is very difficult to detect because the chemical and physical constants are normal, and odour is the sole method of detection — oil of lemon grass giving a distinctive odour to the admixture.

PURIFIED VOLATILE OIL OF BITTER ALMOND
Botanical Source : The cake left after pressing out the fixed oil from bitter almonds, peach kernels or apricot kernels.
Fam.: Rosaceae.
Geographical Source : Southern France, Sicily, and Northern Africa.
Preparation : This oil does not pre-exist in the seeds. It is prepared by crushing the seeds and freeing them from fixed oil, e.g. Sweet Oil of Almond, of which they contain about 40 per cent. The residual cake is re-crushed, mixed with water, enzyme action allowed to proceed for some hours at about 40° C., and the mixture then distilled. The interacting substances are the glycoside amygdaline and the enzyme emulsin, the latter causing hydrolysis of the former as follows —

Amygdalin + Water ——> Benzaldehyde + Hydrocyanic acid + Dextrose
                              (Emulsin)

Benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid are both volatile, and the oil which separates from the aqueous portion of the distillate consists chiefly of benzaldehyde, with about 2-4 per cent of hydrocyanic acid, of which part is free and part combined with the benzaldehyde in the form of an additive compound called benzaldehyde-cyanhydrin. The proportion of hydrocyanic acid present renders this oil very poisonous, hence prior to sale for pharmaceutical or domestic purposes the acid is removed as follows —

The oil is mixed with milk of lime, whereby the hydrocyanic acid, both free and combined, is converted into calcium cyanide. Ferrous sulphate is next added, and this converts the calcium cyanide into calcium ferrocyanide — a compound not decomposed in the subsequent distillation. The mixture is then distilled in a current of steam, and the oil which separates from the aqueous portion of the distillate consists almost entirely of benzaldehyde, and is known as Oleum Amygdalae Essentiale sine Acido Prussico. On account of its high cost it has been largely replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde. The yield is 0-5-1-0 per cent.
Constituents : Benzaldehyde, about 90 per cent. Hydrocyanic Acid, 2-4 per cent 5 m the original oil. The purified oil should contain not less than 95-0 per cent of benzaldehyde.

5. Oils containing Ketones.
Two official oils owe their value to the ketone carvone, though the odour of each is modified by accompanying substances.

 

Principle of Estimation: Ketones, like aldehydes, combine with hydroxylamine, and form ketox-imes. The method of estimating ketones follows therefore, in outline, that described for aldehydes.

OIL OF CARAWAY
Botanical Source : Holland and Germany.
Preparation : By distillation in steam ; yield 4-6 per cent.
Constituents : Carvone, 50-60 percent, the B.P.C. standard being 53-0-63-0 per cent w/w. d-Limonene (carvene), constitutes the remainder of the oil.

OIL OF DILL
Official Source : Germany, Rumania. England.
Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield 3-4 per cent.
Constituents : Carvone, 35-60 per cent, the official standard being 43-63 per cent w/w. d-Limonene is the principal terpene present, phellandrene and others being present in small proportion.
Adulteration : Two other varieties of oil of dill occur in commerce. One, oil of Indian dill, from Anethum Sowa Roxb. (Peucedanum Sowa Kurz), has a different composition containing dill-apiol. The sp. gr. of oil of Indian dill is 0-946—0970, whereas that of oil of dill is 0-900-0-915, hence the addition of a proportion of the former oil to the latter will raise the sp. gr. and give prima facie evidence of adulteration, probably with oil of Indian dill. The other variety is oil of dill of Spanish origin. This oil contains less carvone than the official oil, and substitution would be revealed by the lowered sp. gr., and by estimation of the carvone.

6. Oils containing Phenols
Only one official oil owes its value to a phenol, namely Oil of Clove, which is officially required to contain 85-0-90-0 per cent v/v of the phenol, eugenol.

Principle of Estimation. Estimation is based on the fact that phenols combine with caustic alkalis to form water-soluble compounds. Hence the difference in volume between the oil used and that remaining uncombined represents the amount of phenol present in the portion tested. The estimation is carried out in a special flask, called a Hirschsohn or Cassia flask, which is stoppered and has a long neck graduated like a burette. The oil and alkali are shaken thoroughly at intervals for a prescribed period, and the uncombined oil is then raised to the graduated neck by the addition of more alkali. After standing for 24 hours or more for complete separation to ensue, the volume of uncombined oil is read off. The percentage v/v of phenols is calculated from the data obtained.

OIL OF CLOVE

Official Source: Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pemba, Penang.

Preparation : By distillation in steam; yield about 15 per cent.

The oil can be fractionated into the two main constituents, eugenol (sp. gr. 1-072) and caryophyllene (sp. gr. 0-9085). In commercial distillation, however, the whole of the oil sinks to the bottom of the receiver. The first runnings of oil distilled from the buds possess quite a distinct character and are used in the perfumery trade.

Constituents : Eugenol, 76-90 per cent, the official requirement being 85-0-90-0 per cent v/v, determined as described above.

The remainder of the oil consists almost entirely of the terpene caryophyllene. Other constituents include furfuraldehyde (the provable cause of darkening on storage), methylamylketone and acetyleugenol.

7. Oils containing Oxides
Two official oils owe their value to cineole, which is chemically an inner ether, or lactone; it is also known as eucalyptol or cajuputol.

 

Principle of Estimation. The estimation is based on the fact that cineole combines with o-cresol to form a solid compound melting at 55-2° C. The other constituents lower the melting point according to the proportion present.

A prescribed weight of dry oil and pure dry o-cresol are mixed in a test tube, the contents warmed gently to melt the mixture, and the freezing point determined under prescribed conditions. The freezing point is re-determined by re-melting and cooling until two consecutive concordant results are obtained. The proportion of cineole which this represents is then found from a table (B.P., Appendix XI).

OIL OF CAJUPUT
Botanical Source : The fresh leaves and twigs of Melaleuca Leucadendron Linn. Fam.: Myrtaceae.
Geographical Source : Malay Archipelago (Molucca Islands).
Preparation : By distillation in steam, followed by rectification.
Constituents : Cineole, 45-55 per cent, the official requirement being 50-65 per cent w/w, determined by the process described above.
Subsidiary constituents are the terpene Z-pinene, and certain aldehydes.

OIL OF EUCALYPTUS
Official Source : The fresh leaves of various species of Eucalyptus. Fam.: Myrtaceae.
Geographical Source : Tasmania, Eastern Australia, and, to a small extent, Southern Europe.
Preparation : By distillation in steam, followed by rectification; yield 1-3 per cent. The foliage of the undergrowth produces the best oil. The Australian season for cutting the leaves and distilling extends from January to June.
Constituents: Cineole, 50-80 per cent, the official requirement being not less than 70-0 per cent w/w, determined as described above.
Tests : Limit of Phellandrene. There are many species of Eucalyptus, most of which yield an essential oil. The principal species used are E. polybractea and E. Smithii. Both yield an oil rich in cineole, averaging about 80 per cent in E. polybractea. Official standardization at not less than 70 per cent w/w of cineole has reduced admixture of oils rich in cineole with others containing but little. Certain of the latter, e.g. the oils yielded by E. Amygdalina, E. Baileyana, are not only poor in cineole but contain a considerable proportion of the sesquiterpene phellandrene, which is objectionable for medicinal use, and is therefore limited in the official specification. The limit-test is based on the combination of phellandrene with nitrous acid to form a crystalline compound insoluble in petroleum spirit. The test is carried out in the following manner.

“Mix 1 ml. of oil, 2 ml. of glacial acetic acid, 5 ml. of light petroleum, and 2 ml. of saturated solution of sodium nitrite, and shake gently.” The formation of a crystalline precipitate in the upper layer indicates the presence of oils containing an undue proportion of phellandrene.

Limit of Aldehydes. Eucalyptus maculata var. citriodora Hook, yields an oil containing 84-90 per cent of the aldehyde citronellal. The latter has a lemon-like odour and, the above oil is therefore known as “lemon-scented” eucalyptus oil. The official limit test for aldehydes limits the use of this oil, and others containing citronellal or other aldehydes, for the purpose of diluting oils rich in cineole to the official standard. The test is carried out as for aldehydes in volatile oils.

8. Oils containing Peroxides
Only one medicinal oil owes its value to a peroxide, namely Oil of Chenopodium, which is required to contain not less than 65-0 per cent w/w of the peroxide ascaridole.

Principle of Estimation : Estimation is based on the fact that peroxides liberate iodine quantitatively from an acidified solution of potassium iodide, and the iodine so formed can be ascertained by titration with standard solution of sodium thiosulphate. In the case of ascaridole, the estimation is complicated by a number of factors and the official details (B.P. 1953) must be rigidly followed in order to obtain concordant results. The latter are calculated from an empirical factor based on the results of a large number of determinations of pure ascaridole. (T. T. Cocking and F. C. Hymans, Analyst, 1930, 55, 180.)

OIL OF CHENOPODIUM
Synonym : Oil of American Wormseed.
Botanical Source : The fresh flowering and fruiting plants, excluding roots, of Chenopodium ambrosioides Luin var. anthelminticum Gray. Pam.: Chenopodiaceae.
Geographical Source : U.S.A., Central America, and West Indies.
Preparation : By distillation in steam. The process must be carried out rapidly, using special plant, since ascaridole is decomposed by slow distillation.
Constituents : Ascaridole, not less than 65-0 per cent w/w. (B.P. 1953.) Subsidiary constituents are the terpenes, cymene and terpinene. Due to the fact that ascaridole is a peroxide, the oil is a powerful oxidizing agent and therefore reacts, often very violently, with reducing agents. The oil explodes on heating.

9. Oils with Miscellaneous Constituents.

OIL OF NUTMEG
Botanical Source : East Indies. Penang. West Indies (Grenada)
Preparation : By distillation in steam, broken and damaged nutmegs being used; yield 8-15 per cent.
Constituents : d-Camphene, up to 80 per cent, and other terpenes, including d-pinene and dipentene.
Alcohols* including linalol, terpineol, geraniol, and borneol, 6 per cent.
Phenols including safrole, eugenol, and iso-eugenol, 0-8 per cent.
Myristicin (a methoxy derivative of safrole), 4 per cent, responsible for the toxic effects of large doses of the oil.
* According to Power and Salway.

Official Fractions of Volatile Oils.
The substances camphor (a ketone), menthol (an alcohol), and thymol (a phenol) are solid fractions, and eucalyptol (an oxide) is a liquid fraction of certain volatile oils. The solid compounds were at one time called stearoptenes, a term indicating that portion of a volatile oil which separated upon thorough cooling, the portion remaining liquid being called an elaeoptene. Although lacking chemical precision, these terms are still used for descriptive purposes. Camphor, menthol, thymol, and eucalyptol are prepared by widely different methods, and will therefore be described separately.

CAMPHOR
Camphor may be prepared either from natural sources or by synthesis.

Natural Camphor.
Official Source : The tree, Cinnamomum Camphora (Linn.) Nees and Eberm. Fam.: Lauraceae.
Geographical Source : Formosa (produces about 75 per cent of the world’s requirements). China (provinces on the straits of Formosa) producing the remainder.

Camphor production is a large industry in these areas; the quantity used in medicine, although important, represents only a small fraction of the output, a considerably larger quantity being used in the production of celluloid. In Formosa replanting has been carried out to ensure continuous and increasing supplies. In China, replanting has been neglected, with consequent diminution of yield. Most parts of the tree contain oil-cells in which volatile oil is secreted, averaging 3 to 6 per cent. This oil contains 10-50 per cent of camphor, the highest proportion being found in the oil contained in the older parts of the tree, e.g. the root and trunk. It has been stated (T. Yahagi, Jap. J. Ghem., 1928, 3, 109) that the formation of camphor is due to the action of an enzyme, possibly a peroxidase, on certain cell-constituents, and that enzyme activity is greatest in the actively-growing parts, notably in the layer of wood tissue just within the cambium. Hence each zone of wood, as formed, becomes rich in camphor which remains there as growth proceeds ; consequently, the woody tissue of root and trunk from mature trees becomes the principal camphor-containing part of the tree, and in Formosa distillation is mainly from the wood of trees 40 to 50 years old. The average yield of camphor is about 5 kilogram. per tree.

 

COMPOSITION OF NATURAL OIL OF CAMPHOR
The natural oil obtained from the camphor tree contains a large number of compounds. This oil may be separated by fractional distillation into three main fractions;

1. A Light Fraction. This is collected up to about 200° C. It consists chiefly of terpenes together with cineole. This oil is known as light oil of camphor and sometimes by the misleading name of essential oil of camphor.

2. A Middle Fraction. This is collected from about 200 to 230° C. It consists chiefly of camphor.

3. A Heavy Fraction. This is collected from about 230° C. It contains a high proportion of safrol. Upon refrigeration, safrole crystallizes out, the other substances remaining liquid. This liquid is drained off and the crystalline mass pressed. The latter is then allowed to liquefy, and purified by re-refrigeration. The product is almost pure safrole. The latter has almost entirely replaced Oil of Sassafras, and is also used for the manufacture of heliotropin, a substance having the odour of heliotrope and used in perfumery. The natural oil usually contains sufficient camphor to render it semi-solid at ordinary temperatures. When pressed, the liquid portion can be expelled leaving behind a solid mass consisting of crude camphor.

Preparation : The trunk and branches of the felled tree are cut into chips which are placed on the perforated false bottom of a still, connected by a pipe to a water-cooled receiver. Beneath the false bottom water is heated, or steam passed in, whereupon the oil is volatilized, passing with the steam into the condenser. If the whole of the oil is collected without interruption, a semi-solid product is obtained, from which the liquid portion is removed by draining and pressing, leaving behind crude camphor. Alternatively, the receiver may be changed when most of the terpenes have distilled over, and the crude camphor collected separately. These processes are carried out in the area of collection, and the crude camphor is then taken to refineries for purification. In one process of purification, the crude camphor is mixed with lime (to absorb the water present) and sand, and then sublimed in large vats, each fitted with a cone-shaped lid, provided with a flat, partial diaphragm. Upon heating, the sublimate of pure camphor collects on the lid in blocks, which are then cut for export into slabs weighing about 2 lb. In the other purification process the still is connected to very large cooled receivers. The hot camphor vapour condenses in the enclosed atmosphere in the form of small detached crystals (camphor flowers), which collect on the floor of the receiver.

Synthetic Camphor.
Camphor may be synthesized from pinene, the terpene which forms the bulk of oil of turpentine. The pinene is converted through bornyl chloride to the alcohol borneol and this is oxidized to the ketone camphor. Synthetic camphor is optically inactive, being a mixture of equal amounts of the laevo- and dextro-compounds; natural camphor consists only of the latter and is therefore optically active. Pure synthetic camphor is identical in appearance with natural camphor but is more waxy to the touch. Moreover the synthetic material is liable to contain as impurity a small proportion of iso-borneol due to the last stage in the synthesis not going to completion and the difficulty of removing all unchanged iso-borneol on account of the similarity in certain properties.

MENTHOL
Official Source : Various species of Mentha, or prepared synthetically. Fam.: Labiates.
Geographical Source : Brazil, Japan, principally the northern island, Hokkaido. China produces a relatively small amount.
The official oil of peppermint, from M. piperita grown in the U.S.A. and England is but little used for the preparation of menthol. The latter is obtained from Japanese peppermint oil yielded by M. arvensis Linn. var. piperascens Holmes, Chinese peppermint oil obtained from M. arvensis Linn. var. glabrata, and Brazilian peppermint oil. The herbs yield about 0-3 per cent of volatile oil of which the Japanese is the richest in menthol; it contains 70 – 90 per cent, the oil being a crystalline mass at room temperature due to crystallization of the menthol.

Preparation : The oil is steam-distilled from the cut herb after it has partially withered a condition found by experience to produce the highest yield. Upon freezing the oil, rather more than half of the menthol separates as crystals, and these are drained from the liquid portion of the oil, and then re-crystallized from alcohol.

The separated liquid portion is known as Japanese dementholized peppermint oil, and still contains 40-54 per cent of menthol, and 5-17 per cent of esters of menthol. By boiling with solution of sodium hydroxide these esters may be decomposed to form menthol, and, upon further freezing, the saponified oil yields a second crop of menthol crystals. However, most of the oil is exported without further treatment, to be used in the manufacture of confectionery and cordials.

Synthetic Menthol.
The molecule of menthol contains three asymmetric carbon atoms and consequently various isomeric forms are possible. Natural menthol is laevo-rotatary and the Pharmacopoeia also recognizes synthetic menthol in its laevo and racemic forms.

THYMOL
Thymol may be prepared either from natural sources or by synthesis.
Natural Thymol.
Official Sources : The volatile oils of the following plants :

 

* Yielding Indian Ajowan Seed, formerly important but now little cultivated.

It has also been prepared from the stem and leaves of Ocimum gratissimum (Fam. Labiatae), grown in India, Ceylon and Java. This source yields about 0-5 per cent of oil containing about 55 per cent of thymol.

Preparation : After separation by steam-distillation, the oil is subjected to fractional distillation in order to separate the bulk of the hydrocarbons (low boiling-point fraction), and thereby raise the content of thymol. The hydrocarbon-free oil is then shaken with solution of sodium hydroxide, with which the thymol combines to form a water-soluble compound called sodium thymate — analogous to sodium phenate. Upon standing, the mixture resolves into two layers, an oily layer now free from thymol, and an aqueous layer containing sodium thymate. The latter is separated and acidified with hydrochloric acid, which decomposes the sodium thymate, re-forming thymol. The latter is practically insoluble in water and separates as an oily liquid — the presence of impurities preventing crystallization. Crystallization is induced by sowing a few crystals of thymol in the liquid. The product thereby obtained is next dissolved in the minimum of alcohol, the solution decolorized by filtration through animal charcoal, and after dilution with water it is set aside, whereupon thymol crystallizes out in the form of large rhombic prisms.

Synthetic Thymol.
Thymol is chemically 3-methyl-6-isopropylphenol and is prepared by the oxidation of piperitone, derived from Javan Citronella Oil or from Australian Eucalyptus dives oil. Other synthetic methods start from p-cymene (derived from turpentine) or m-cresol (a coal tar product) which is condensed with iso-propyl alcohol or propylene in the presence of phosphoric acid.

EUCALYPTOL
Synonym : Cineole.
Official Source : As for Oil of Eucalyptus,
Preparation : Preparation is usually based on the fact that at low temperatures eucalyptol combines with phosphoric acid to form a solid additive compound from which the non-eucalyptol fluid portion of the oil can be almost completely separated by pressure. Subsequent treatment of the solid compound with warm water resolves it into phosphoric acid and eucalyptol, the latter separating as an oily layer. The latter is then purified.
The Pharmacopoeia requires eucalyptol to have a freezing-point not lower than 0°.

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