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In today’s society, urine drug tests have become a common method for employers, schools, and law enforcement to detect drug use. These tests are often used to ensure workplace safety, maintain academic integrity, and comply with legal obligations. Due to the significant consequences, including job loss, academic penalties, and legal repercussions, many individuals find themselves seeking ways to pass a drug test for weed, especially if they have recently used substances that could be detected. In this article, we will explore what a urine drug test entails, including its purpose and how it works. We will also discuss various methods of detoxification that individuals may consider before a test, such as detox pills, synthetic urine, and devices designed to aid in passing the test. By understanding these options, you can make informed decisions about how to pass a urine test and increase your chances of success.

What is a Urine Drug Test?

A urine drug test, also known as urinalysis, is a common method used to detect the presence of drugs in an individual’s system. It’s widely utilized by employers, law enforcement agencies, and medical professionals to ascertain if a person has been using illegal substances or misusing prescription medications. Urinalysis is favored due to its non-invasive nature, cost-effectiveness, and reliability in providing results.

How Does Urine Drug Testing Work?

The test works by analyzing a urine sample for the presence of specific metabolites, which are byproducts produced when the body breaks down drugs. When a person consumes a drug, it enters the bloodstream and eventually filters through the kidneys, where it’s excreted as urine. The testing process involves collecting the urine sample, which is then subjected to a series of chemical tests. These tests can identify various types of drugs and their metabolites, helping to determine whether a person has recently used substances.

What Can a Urine Drug Test Detect?

A standard urine drug test can detect a range of substances, including:

• Marijuana (THC)
• Cocaine
• Opiates (e.g., heroin, morphine)
• Amphetamines (e.g., methamphetamine)
• Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax, Valium)
• Phencyclidine (PCP)
• Barbiturates

These substances can vary depending on the specific panel of the test used, with some tests targeting a broader spectrum of drugs.

Describe the Process of Collecting Samples

The process of collecting urine samples for drug testing typically involves the following steps:

1. Preparation: The person being tested is informed about the procedure and any specific instructions they must follow, such as avoiding certain substances before the test.
2. Providing a Sample: The individual is taken to a private restroom, where they provide a urine sample into a sterile container. They are usually instructed to fill the container to a specific level.
3. Sealing the Sample: After the sample is collected, it is sealed with a tamper-proof label to ensure it has not been altered.
4. Transporting the Sample: The sealed sample is then transported to a laboratory for analysis, where it will undergo testing for various drugs.
5. Analyzing the Sample: In the lab, the sample is analyzed using different techniques, including immunoassay screening and confirmatory tests, to determine the presence of drugs.

Freshness of the Urine for the Test

The freshness of the urine sample is crucial for accurate testing. Urine can spoil if not properly handled, which may affect test results. Generally, urine is best analyzed within a few hours of collection. If a sample is not tested promptly, it can become contaminated or degrade.

• 1-Day Old Urine: Typically still viable for testing.
• 2-Day Old Urine: Might still be acceptable but is less reliable.
• 3-Day Old Urine: Can you use 3-day old urine drug test? It is generally not recommended due to potential degradation and contamination.
• 5-Day Old Urine: Usually unsuitable for accurate testing.
• 7-Day Old Urine: Highly unlikely to provide reliable results and may not be accepted for testing.

To ensure accurate results, it’s best to use a fresh sample, ideally collected on the day of testing.

How Long Does Weed Stay in Your Pee?

When it comes to understanding how long does weed stay in your pee, it’s essential to recognize that detection times can vary based on several factors, including the frequency of use, the individual’s metabolism, and the sensitivity of the drug test being administered. Below is a detailed examination of how long weed stays in urine based on different usage patterns.

Detection Times for Cannabis in Urine

Cannabis, or marijuana, contains tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive compound responsible for its effects. When consumed, THC is metabolized by the body and excreted in urine. The following table summarizes the general detection times for cannabis based on different usage levels:

Usage Category	Detection Time in Urine
Occasional Use	1-3 days
Light Use (1-2 times a week)	3-7 days
Moderate Use (3-4 times a week)	7-21 days
Heavy Use (daily)	21-30 days or longer

Occasional Use: For someone who uses cannabis infrequently (perhaps just once or twice), THC metabolites can typically be detected in urine for about 1 to 3 days. This is because the body processes and eliminates the substance relatively quickly.

Light Use: If an individual uses cannabis 1 to 2 times a week, detection times can extend to about 3 to 7 days. The infrequent use means that the body has time to metabolize the THC, but enough metabolites can still remain to be detected.

Moderate Use: For those who consume cannabis more regularly, such as 3 to 4 times a week, urine tests may show positive results for 7 to 21 days. The more frequent exposure leads to an accumulation of THC metabolites in the body, which takes longer to clear.

Heavy Use: Daily users of cannabis may find that THC can be detected in their urine for 21 days or even longer. This prolonged detection time is due to the significant buildup of metabolites in the body, particularly in fat tissues where THC tends to be stored.

Understanding these detection times is crucial for individuals who may be facing urine drug tests, especially in employment or legal contexts. The variances in detection windows highlight the importance of being aware of one’s usage habits and the potential implications they carry.

How to Pass a Pee Test: When And Why Do Employers Drug Test?

Employers use urine drug tests for various reasons, primarily to ensure a safe and productive workplace. These tests are commonly employed during the hiring process, referred to as pre-employment drug testing. This step helps employers screen candidates for substance use that could impair job performance or pose safety risks.

In addition to pre-employment testing, employers may conduct random drug tests on their employees to deter substance abuse. These surprise checks help maintain workplace safety and compliance with company policies. Furthermore, post-accident testing is often mandated after an incident at the workplace, especially if it involves injury or property damage, to determine if drug use contributed to the event.

Certain professions, particularly those related to transportation and safety-sensitive positions, require urine drug testing as part of regulatory compliance. For instance, the Department of Transportation (DOT) mandates drug testing for commercial drivers, pilots, and other transportation workers. These regulations ensure that individuals operating vehicles or equipment do so without the influence of drugs or alcohol, reducing the risk of accidents.

Conversely, some professions do not typically require urine drug tests. For example, non-DOT positions in sectors such as technology or administrative roles may rely on other forms of screening or may not conduct drug testing at all. In these cases, employers may focus more on evaluating a candidate’s skills and experience rather than their substance use history.

How to Pass a Urine Test: Preparing for the Test

When learning how to pass ua drug tests, preparing for a urine drug test requires careful planning and awareness of various factors that can influence the results. It is essential to understand how your body processes substances, particularly drugs, and how these metabolites can be detected in your urine. This section will discuss several critical factors that affect the test results and provide a guideline for creating a personalized plan to maximize your chances of passing the test.

Factors Influencing Urine Drug Test Results

Several variables can affect the outcomes of a urine drug test. Understanding these factors can help you prepare effectively:

• Frequency of Substance Use: Regular users of drugs may have higher levels of metabolites in their bodies, which can be detected for longer periods. Occasional users typically have a shorter detection window.
• Body Weight and BMI: Individuals with higher body mass may store toxins in fat cells longer than those with lower body weight, affecting detoxification rates.
• Metabolism: A faster metabolism can help process and eliminate toxins more quickly. Factors like age, genetics, and overall health can impact metabolic rates.
• Hydration Levels: Drinking water can dilute urine, potentially lowering the concentration of drug metabolites. However, excessive dilution can raise suspicion and lead to a failed test.
• Diet and Nutrition: A healthy diet can support your body’s natural detoxification processes. Foods rich in fiber, vitamins, and minerals can enhance liver function and promote toxin elimination.
• Exercise: While exercise can boost metabolism and promote the breakdown of fat cells, it can also release stored toxins into the bloodstream temporarily, which may then appear in urine.

Creating a Personalized Plan

To effectively prepare for a urine drug test, you should develop a tailored plan that considers your unique circumstances. This plan should include the following elements:

1. Assess Your Weight and BMI: Calculate your body mass index (BMI) to understand how your weight might impact drug elimination. This knowledge will help you gauge how long substances may remain detectable in your system.
2. Evaluate Usage Frequency: Reflect on how often you use substances. If you are a frequent user, you may need a more extended detox period compared to someone who uses drugs infrequently.
3. Determine Time Until Test: Understand how long do you need to be clean to pass a urine drug test. Knowing how many days you have until the test will help you plan your detox strategy accordingly.
4. Hydration Strategy: Create a hydration plan that balances water intake without over-diluting your urine. Aim for consistent hydration, as this can aid your body’s natural detoxification process.
5. Nutritional Adjustments: Incorporate a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Foods high in fiber support digestion and promote the elimination of toxins.
6. Consider Detox Products: If necessary, research detox products that may assist in eliminating drug metabolites from your system. Products like detox drinks or supplements can be beneficial but should be chosen carefully based on their effectiveness and safety.

By taking these factors into account and implementing a well-structured plan, you can significantly enhance your chances of passing a urine drug test. Remember that preparation is key, and personalizing your approach will lead to the best results.

How to Pass a Piss Test: Methods for Passing

When preparing for a urine drug test, individuals often explore various methods to ensure a clean result. Detox drinks, detox pills, and synthetic urine products are popular options that can help users cleanse their systems effectively. This article will discuss the top five methods for detoxing and provide detailed information about specific products that can assist in passing a urine drug test.

Top 5 Detox Methods

• Toxin Rid Pills – The most effective solution, as it eliminates THC rather than just masking it.
• Detoxify Mega Clean – A detox drink designed for immediate cleansing.
• Quick Fix Synthetic Urine – A liquid synthetic urine product that mimics real urine.
• UPass Synthetic Urine – Another liquid synthetic urine option, designed to replicate human urine.
• Urine Simulation with Powdered Urine Kit – A powdered version of synthetic urine that is easy to prepare and use.

Toxin Rid Pills

Time to Work: Toxin Rid Pills come in various detox programs ranging from 1 to 10 days, making it suitable for different levels of THC exposure.

THC Exposure Effectiveness: It is effective for all types of users, including light, moderate, and heavy users, as it does not just mask THC but fully eliminates it from the body.

Brand Reputation: Manufactured by TestClear, Toxin Rid is highly rated with an average score of 4.5 out of 5 on Amazon, based on thousands of reviews.

Ingredients: Key ingredients include alfalfa leaf extract, which facilitates toxin removal through urination, and electrolytes that support the body’s detoxification process.

Directions on How to Use:

1. Take three tablets every hour for five hours daily, depending on the program duration.
2. Drink at least half a gallon of water daily.
3. Follow a detox diet rich in fruits and vegetables.
4. Take the detox liquid on the final day as instructed.

Main Advantages: Toxin Rid stands out for its comprehensive detox approach that targets the elimination of toxins rather than temporary masking. It also comes with a money-back guarantee.

Cost: The price ranges from $54.95 for a 1-day detox to $189.95 for a 10-day detox on the official website, with similar prices on Amazon.

Pros and Cons:

• Pros:
  • Effective for various drug tests.
  • Uses natural ingredients.
  • Vegan-friendly and gluten-free.
  • Comprehensive detoxification.
  • Money-back guarantee.
• Cons:
  • Can be expensive.
  • Requires commitment to a strict regimen.
  • May cause mild digestive discomfort for some users.

Detoxify Mega Clean

Time to Work: Mega Clean is designed for same-day results, providing a quick detox solution.

THC Exposure Effectiveness: It is effective mainly for light to moderate users, as it aids in flushing out toxins quickly.

Brand Reputation: Produced by Detoxify, Mega Clean has a solid reputation with a score of 4.3 out of 5 on Amazon based on numerous reviews.

Ingredients: Key ingredients include Milk Thistle Extract, which supports liver function, and Ginseng Root, known for its detoxifying properties.

Directions on How to Use:

1. Shake the bottle well and drink the entire contents.
2. Wait 15 minutes.
3. Refill the bottle with water, shake, and drink again.
4. Urinate frequently to ensure optimal cleansing.

Main Advantages: Mega Clean is known for its fast-acting formula and ease of use. It also replenishes vital vitamins and minerals lost during detoxification.

Cost: Priced at approximately $39.95 on the official website and similar on Amazon.

Pros and Cons:

• Pros:
  • Quick results within hours.
  • Easy to use.
  • Replenishes nutrients.
  • Works on various toxins.
  • Pleasant tropical flavor.
• Cons:
  • May not be effective for heavy users.
  • Requires careful timing for maximum effectiveness.
  • Limited detox duration.

Quick Fix Synthetic Urine

Time to Work: Quick Fix is ready to use and works immediately, making it ideal for last-minute tests.

THC Exposure Effectiveness: This synthetic urine is suitable for all users, as it does not contain any THC.

Brand Reputation: Manufactured by Spectrum Labs, Quick Fix holds a strong reputation with a score of 4.2 out of 5 on Amazon.

Ingredients: Quick Fix contains urea, creatinine, and uric acid, all of which are naturally occurring in human urine, making it a reliable substitute.

Directions on How to Use:

1. Shake the bottle well.
2. Warm it in the microwave for 7-10 seconds until within the required temperature range (94° – 100°F).
3. Attach the heating pad if needed.
4. Submit the sample for testing.

Main Advantages: Quick Fix is praised for its authenticity and reliability, mimicking real urine very closely.

Cost: It typically retails for $37.95 on the official website and Amazon.

Pros and Cons:

• Pros:
  • Easy to use and prepare.
  • Mimics real urine accurately.
  • Convenient for unexpected tests.
  • Includes a temperature strip and heating pad.
  • High success rate among users.
• Cons:
  • Requires careful temperature management.
  • Can be detected in certain tests.
  • Limited shelf life if not stored properly.

UPass Synthetic Urine

Time to Work: UPass is also ready to use immediately, providing instant results.

THC Exposure Effectiveness: Like Quick Fix, UPass is completely THC-free, making it suitable for all users.

Brand Reputation: UPass is manufactured by Safeguard Laboratories and has received a score of 4.5 out of 5 on Amazon, backed by positive customer feedback.

Ingredients: This synthetic urine includes key components that replicate the chemical composition of real urine, ensuring it passes testing standards.

Directions on How to Use:

1. Shake the bottle.
2. Warm it using the provided heating pad.
3. Ensure the temperature is in the acceptable range.
4. Submit the sample for testing.

Main Advantages: UPass is known for its high-quality formulation, which closely simulates human urine, making it an excellent option for urine testing.

Cost: Priced at around $29.95, it is one of the more affordable synthetic urine solutions available.

Pros and Cons:

• Pros:
  • Highly realistic and effective.
  • Easy to use.
  • Contains all necessary components for passing a test.
  • Affordable.
  • Excellent customer reviews.
• Cons:
  • Requires temperature management.
  • Limited effectiveness if improperly prepared.
  • Not suitable for hair or blood tests.

Urine Simulation with Powdered Urine Kit

Time to Work: This kit takes a bit longer to prepare as it involves mixing with water, but it can be ready within an hour.

THC Exposure Effectiveness: Like the other synthetic options, this product is free of THC and suitable for all users.

Brand Reputation: Many users consider this kit a reliable choice, with an average rating of 4.0 out of 5 on various platforms.

Ingredients: The powdered urine contains urea and other compounds that mimic the properties of human urine, ensuring it passes testing.

Directions on How to Use:

1. Mix the powdered urine with water until fully dissolved.
2. Warm the mixture to the correct temperature using a heater.
3. Use a thermometer to ensure proper temperature.
4. Submit the sample.

Main Advantages: This option is very customizable and can be prepared according to the user’s needs, providing a realistic alternative to real urine.

Cost: Typically retails for $59.95, offering a comprehensive solution at a competitive price.

Pros and Cons:

• Pros:
  • Highly customizable and realistic.
  • Easy to store and transport.
  • Effective for various testing situations.
  • Allows for more control over preparation.
  • Can be diluted if necessary.
• Cons:
  • Requires more preparation time.
  • Temperature management can be tricky.
  • Potentially more complicated than liquid options.

In conclusion, understanding how to pass a urine drug test involves knowing the available products and their effectiveness. Whether you choose detox pills, drinks, or synthetic urine, it’s essential to select the right method that aligns with your needs and level of THC exposure. Always follow the instructions carefully and consider user reviews to ensure the best chance of success.

Best Way to Pass Urine Drug Test: Natural Home Remedies to Clean Your System of Weed

When facing a urine drug test, many individuals seek natural home remedies to pass urine to help cleanse their system of THC, the active compound in marijuana. While the effectiveness of these methods can vary based on individual factors, here are three popular techniques that some people believe may aid in the detoxification process.

Hydration

One of the simplest and most commonly recommended methods for flushing out toxins, including THC, is staying well-hydrated. Drinking plenty of water can help dilute the concentration of marijuana metabolites in your urine, potentially making it less detectable during a drug test. Aim for at least 2-3 liters of water daily in the days leading up to your test. It’s important to balance your hydration with electrolyte intake, as excessive water consumption can lead to an electrolyte imbalance. You can add sports drinks or coconut water to your routine to replenish lost minerals while staying hydrated.

Natural Detox Teas

Another method involves the use of detoxifying herbal teas, which are believed to help cleanse the body of toxins. Varieties such as dandelion root tea, green tea, and ginger tea are popular choices. Dandelion root tea is noted for its diuretic properties, which can promote urination and aid in eliminating toxins. Green tea is rich in antioxidants and may support liver function, helping your body process and expel harmful substances more efficiently. Ginger tea can aid digestion and improve metabolism, further supporting your body’s natural detoxification processes. Drinking these teas regularly may enhance your efforts to cleanse your system.

Healthy Diet

A healthy diet can play a crucial role in detoxification. Consuming a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and fiber can accelerate the body’s natural detoxification processes. Foods high in antioxidants, such as berries, citrus fruits, and leafy greens, help combat oxidative stress and support liver health. Additionally, incorporating foods like brown rice, flaxseeds, and legumes can promote regular bowel movements, which is essential for eliminating toxins through feces. Avoiding processed foods, sugars, and fats during this period can also support your detox efforts. Focusing on whole, nutrient-dense foods can help your body effectively eliminate THC metabolites.

In conclusion, while natural home remedies may provide some assistance in the detoxification process, their effectiveness can vary depending on individual circumstances. Staying hydrated, consuming detox teas, and maintaining a healthy diet are all strategies that may contribute to a cleaner system in preparation for a urine drug test.

How Do I Know If I Passed My Drug Test: Frequently Asked Questions

Passing a urine drug test can be crucial for many individuals, especially those facing employment screenings or legal obligations. The process may seem daunting, but understanding the components of the test and preparing adequately can help enhance your chances of success. Below are frequently asked questions about passing a urine drug test.

FAQ

How do I know if I passed my drug test?

The duration drugs remain detectable in urine varies by substance. For instance, marijuana can last from a few days to over a month, depending on the frequency of use, while cocaine may only be detectable for 2 to 4 days.

Can drinking water help me pass a drug test?

Drinking excessive amounts of water may dilute your urine, which could potentially help in passing a test. However, if the test is diluted too much, it may raise suspicions and lead to a retest.

Do detox drinks actually work?

Detox drinks can help expedite the cleansing of toxins from your system. They are often formulated with natural ingredients that support your body’s detoxification processes. However, their effectiveness can vary based on individual metabolism and the amount of drug use.

Can I use synthetic urine for a drug test?

Yes, synthetic urine is designed to mimic real urine and is often used to pass drug tests. However, ensure that the synthetic urine is heated to the correct temperature and that it is not detected as fake during testing.

What should I avoid before a urine drug test?

Avoid consuming drugs or alcohol at least 24 to 48 hours before the test. Additionally, refrain from heavy exercise, as it can release stored toxins into your bloodstream, making them detectable in your urine.

Final Words

In conclusion, passing a urine drug test requires careful preparation and awareness of the factors involved. First, it’s crucial to understand the types of substances that can be detected and the testing methods employed, such as immunoassay and gas chromatography. Staying hydrated can aid in how to pass a piss test to dilute the urine, but overdoing it may raise suspicions. Additionally, certain detox products may promise to cleanse the system, yet their effectiveness can vary significantly. Timing is vital; knowing the detection windows for different drugs can guide your strategy. Most importantly, if you’re facing an impending test, abstaining from drug use is the safest approach. Remember, while some strategies may offer temporary solutions, there are no guaranteed shortcuts to passing a drug test if substances remain in your system. Ultimately, maintaining a drug-free lifestyle not only helps in passing tests but also promotes overall health and well-being.

Drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite harmful consequences. It alters brain function and behavior, requiring more than willpower to overcome. Professional treatment is essential for long-term recovery, combining medical, psychological, and social support to address the complex nature of addiction. For more insight into regional trends, see https://www.methadone.org/drugs/texas-drug-alcohol-statistics/.

Understanding Drug Addiction

Definition and Types of Addiction

Drug addiction is a medical condition involving the compulsive use of substances despite harmful consequences. It affects brain chemistry, particularly areas related to reward, motivation, and memory. Various substances can lead to addiction, including:

• Prescription drugs: Opioids (e.g., oxycodone, hydrocodone), benzodiazepines, stimulants.
• Illicit substances: Heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, ecstasy.
• Over-the-counter drugs: Cough medicines containing dextromethorphan, sleep aids, and diet pills when misused.

Causes and Risk Factors

Several factors contribute to the development of drug addiction:

• Biological: Genetic predisposition, brain structure, and neurochemical imbalances.
• Environmental: Exposure to drugs, peer pressure, family dysfunction, lack of supervision.
• Psychological: Mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety, PTSD, and trauma history.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical Symptoms	Behavioral Symptoms	Psychological Symptoms
Weight changes, poor hygiene, bloodshot eyes	Neglecting responsibilities, secretive behavior, financial problems	Mood swings, anxiety, depression, paranoia

Assessment and Diagnosis

Medical Evaluation

A comprehensive medical assessment involves physical exams, lab testing, and patient interviews to identify drug use patterns and related health issues.

Diagnostic Criteria

• Craving or strong urge to use the substance
• Failure to meet obligations at work, school, or home
• Increased tolerance or withdrawal symptoms

Identifying Addiction Severity

Clinicians use standardized tools such as the DSM-5 criteria and structured interviews to determine whether the addiction is mild, moderate, or severe based on the number and intensity of symptoms present.

Treatment Approaches

Detoxification (Detox)

Detoxification is the initial step in drug addiction treatment, focused on safely removing substances from the body. The goal is to manage acute physical symptoms of withdrawal under medical supervision. Detox alone is not a cure for addiction but prepares individuals for further therapeutic interventions.

• Purpose: To clear drugs from the system and stabilize the individual physically and mentally.
• Process: May involve tapering off substances, providing medications for symptom relief, and monitoring vital signs.
• Duration: Varies by substance and severity—typically ranges from a few days to two weeks.
• Medical Supervision: Essential for managing complications such as seizures, dehydration, or severe anxiety, especially in cases of alcohol, opioid, or benzodiazepine withdrawal.

Behavioral Therapies

Behavioral therapies help individuals understand the psychological roots of addiction, develop coping strategies, and build a support system. Various therapy models are used depending on individual needs.

Therapy Type	Focus	Benefits
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)	Identifying and changing negative thoughts and behaviors	Improves coping skills and reduces relapse
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)	Managing emotional regulation and interpersonal relationships	Effective for co-occurring disorders like depression and PTSD
Motivational Interviewing	Enhancing motivation to change substance use behavior	Empowers clients to take responsibility for recovery
Group and Family Therapy	Improving communication and support systems	Addresses relational issues and builds accountability

Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT)

MAT combines FDA-approved medications with counseling and behavioral therapies to treat substance use disorders. It is most commonly used for opioid, alcohol, and tobacco addiction. MAT helps normalize brain chemistry, block the euphoric effects of drugs, and relieve physiological cravings.

• Methadone: A long-acting opioid agonist used to reduce withdrawal symptoms and cravings.
• Buprenorphine: A partial opioid agonist that lowers the potential for misuse and dependence.
• Naltrexone: An opioid antagonist that blocks the effects of opioids and alcohol.

Medication	Benefits	Risks
Methadone	Reduces cravings and withdrawal, allows normal functioning	Risk of dependency and regulated dispensing required
Buprenorphine	Lower overdose risk, can be prescribed in outpatient settings	Potential for misuse if not monitored
Naltrexone	Prevents relapse by blocking drug effects	Requires detox before use, possible liver toxicity

Duration of Treatment

Treatment duration varies based on individual needs, severity of addiction, and response to therapy. Programs may range from 30 days in residential rehab to 6–12 months or longer in outpatient settings. Ongoing care and follow-up are crucial for maintaining long-term recovery.

Types of Treatment Programs

Inpatient Rehabilitation

Inpatient rehabilitation is a comprehensive and intensive treatment option where individuals reside at a facility full-time for the duration of their program. It provides constant supervision, a highly structured environment, and immediate access to medical care and therapeutic services.

• 24/7 supervision and structured daily schedules
• On-site medical services and emergency support
• Individual counseling and group therapy sessions
• Family therapy and education
• Support for detoxification and medication management
• Accommodation and meals provided
• Typical duration ranges from 30 to 90 days

Outpatient Programs

Outpatient programs are suitable for individuals with mild to moderate addiction or those who have completed inpatient treatment and need ongoing support. These programs offer flexibility while maintaining access to therapy and recovery resources.

• Flexible scheduling for work, school, or family commitments
• Minimal to moderate supervision
• Maintenance therapy and relapse prevention planning
• Support groups and peer interaction
• Regular check-ins and drug screening
• Scheduled individual and group counseling sessions

Intensive Outpatient Programs (IOPs)

Intensive Outpatient Programs (IOPs) offer a higher level of care than standard outpatient treatment. They are designed for individuals who require structured therapy without residential stay, allowing them to live at home and maintain daily responsibilities.

• Multiple therapy sessions each week
• Live at home while attending treatment
• Compatible with work or school schedules
• Regular drug testing and monitoring
• Group therapy and peer support
• Individual counseling and case management

Partial Hospitalization Programs (PHP)

PHPs provide intensive day treatment and medical oversight while allowing patients to return home at night. These programs serve as a step-down from inpatient rehab or as an alternative for those needing structured treatment without full hospitalization.

• Daily treatment sessions, typically 5–7 days per week
• Return home in the evenings
• On-site medical supervision and crisis intervention
• Structured therapeutic activities and behavioral therapy
• Medication management and health monitoring
• Skills training for relapse prevention and emotional regulation

Residential Treatment

Residential treatment programs involve living in a therapeutic community for extended periods, promoting recovery through structured routines and peer support. These programs are categorized into long-term and short-term options.

Long-term Residential Treatment:

• Stays typically range from 6 to 12 months
• Community-based living with staff and peers
• Focus on reintegration, life skills, and relapse prevention
• Comprehensive behavioral and psychological care
• Vocational training and educational support

Short-term Residential Treatment:

• Programs usually last 3 to 6 weeks
• Intensive therapy and medical supervision
• Focused on immediate stabilization and motivation for change
• Aftercare planning and community support referrals
• Family therapy and transitional support

Cost and Insurance

Treatment Costs

Type of Program	Average Cost (USD)
Inpatient Rehabilitation (30 days)	$6,000 – $20,000
Outpatient Programs	$1,000 – $10,000
Detoxification (medical)	$600 – $1,000 per day
Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT)	$5,000 – $14,000 annually

Insurance Coverage

• Most private insurance plans cover substance use disorder treatment
• Coverage includes inpatient, outpatient, and MAT services
• Medicaid and Medicare may also cover specific programs and medications
• Verification with the provider is recommended for plan details

Financial Assistance Options

• Sliding scale fees based on income
• State-funded treatment centers
• Non-profit and faith-based recovery programs
• Grants or payment assistance through SAMHSA or local health departments

Recovery and Aftercare

Support Groups

• Alcoholics Anonymous (AA): A 12-step fellowship offering peer-led meetings for those recovering from alcohol addiction
• Narcotics Anonymous (NA): A global, community-based group supporting individuals recovering from drug addiction
• Support groups promote accountability and connection through regular meetings

Role of Family, Friends, and Peer Support

• Family involvement improves treatment outcomes and reduces relapse rates
• Peer support fosters a sense of belonging and shared experience
• Educational sessions help loved ones understand addiction and recovery

Community Resources and Helplines

• 24/7 national helplines like SAMHSA’s: 1-800-662-HELP (4357)
• Local recovery centers and support networks
• Online platforms offering virtual support meetings

Relapse Prevention Strategies

• Identify triggers and high-risk situations
• Develop coping skills and healthy routines
• Attend ongoing therapy or counseling
• Stay engaged with support groups
• Create a structured daily schedule

Long-term Recovery Plans

• Continued participation in support groups and therapy
• Setting personal and professional goals
• Healthy lifestyle choices including nutrition and exercise
• Routine medical check-ups and mental health care

Holistic and Alternative Treatment Approaches

Yoga, Meditation, and Mindfulness Practices

Holistic approaches to drug addiction treatment focus on healing the body, mind, and spirit. Yoga, meditation, and mindfulness are widely used to reduce stress, enhance self-awareness, and manage cravings. These practices promote emotional regulation, help individuals cope with triggers, and support long-term recovery by creating mental clarity and inner calm.

• Yoga improves physical strength, flexibility, and balance
• Meditation enhances focus and emotional stability
• Mindfulness reduces anxiety and supports relapse prevention

Nutrition and Physical Wellness Programs

Nutrition and physical health play a vital role in addiction recovery. Substance use can severely impact the body’s nutritional status, leading to deficiencies and weakened immunity. Structured wellness programs help restore health and energy, rebuild muscle, and stabilize mood. Exercise also stimulates the release of endorphins, improving overall well-being.

• Balanced diet plans to correct nutritional deficiencies
• Regular physical activity to enhance mood and energy levels
• Education on healthy lifestyle habits for long-term recovery

Art and Music Therapy

Creative therapies offer non-verbal outlets for emotional expression and self-exploration. Art and music therapy are commonly integrated into recovery programs to help individuals process trauma, express emotions, and reduce anxiety. These therapies encourage positive self-esteem and provide constructive ways to cope with difficult experiences and emotions.

• Art therapy supports emotional processing through drawing, painting, and sculpture
• Music therapy includes listening, composing, or playing instruments to enhance emotional resilience
• Creative expression fosters healing and a sense of accomplishment

Conclusion

Summary of Key Points

• Drug addiction is a chronic disease requiring professional treatment
• Multiple treatment options are available, including medical and behavioral therapies
• Holistic and alternative therapies complement conventional treatments
• Recovery involves ongoing support, relapse prevention, and lifestyle changes

Encouragement to Seek Help and Remain Committed

No one should face addiction alone. Support, guidance, and professional care are essential for lasting recovery. With commitment, the right treatment, and continuous support, recovery is achievable and sustainable.

Narcotics Anonymous (NA) is a global fellowship of people recovering from addiction to narcotics and other substances. NA’s program is based on a 12-step model of recovery, where members share their experiences, strength, and hope to help each other achieve sobriety. Meetings are available in cities across the United States, including Dallas, Texas. For more information, you can visit https://www.wfmh.org/na/texas/dallas-county/dallas.

What is NA?

NA operates as a free program, offering regular group meetings where members share their personal stories and struggles. These meetings provide a supportive environment where individuals can find understanding and encouragement on their recovery journey. In Dallas, Texas, NA meetings are accessible daily, both in-person and online.

Grove Group

The Grove Group of Narcotics Anonymous meets at 2084 North Jim Miller Road, Suite 103C, Dallas, TX 75217. Meetings are held every day at noon and 6 PM CST, providing both in-person and online participation options. The Grove Group is known for its supportive community and offers a platform for members to share their experiences and receive support from fellow addicts.

Northside Group

The Northside Group holds meetings at 11836 Judd Court, Suite 318, Dallas, TX. Meetings occur throughout the day, including 12 PM, 6 PM, 8 PM, and 10 PM CST. This group offers a busy schedule catering to various lifestyle needs, ensuring that members have multiple opportunities to participate and engage in their recovery process.

South Oak Cliff Group

The South Oak Cliff Group meets at 2976 Cummings Street, Dallas, TX, with meetings taking place at 6 PM CST. This group provides a community environment where members can discuss their struggles and receive encouragement from others who are also on the path to recovery. Like other NA groups, it is open to anyone seeking support for addiction.

The 12 Steps of NA

The NA 12-step program is designed to help members achieve personal growth and change through a series of spiritual principles. Each step is crucial in the recovery process and is aimed at motivating members toward positive change.

1. We admitted we were powerless over our addiction—that our lives had become unmanageable. This step acknowledges the inability to stop using despite ongoing negative consequences. Recognizing one’s powerlessness is the first step toward recovery.
2. Came to believe that a Power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity. Here, members begin to accept the idea that a higher power can help them achieve recovery and regain control over their lives.
3. Made a decision to turn our will and our lives over to the care of God as we understood Him. This involves surrendering to the process and trusting that the higher power will guide them toward recovery.
4. Made a searching and fearless moral inventory of ourselves. This step requires members to reflect on their personal values and actions, identifying areas for improvement. It helps members understand how their choices have affected their lives.
5. Admitted to God, to ourselves, and to another human being the exact nature of our wrongs. Members share their moral inventory with another person, usually a sponsor, to release guilt and shame.
6. Were entirely ready to have God remove all these defects of character. Members prepare themselves spiritually to let go of their flaws and shortcomings.
7. Humbly asked Him to remove our shortcomings. By humbly seeking help from a higher power, members work to eliminate their character defects.
8. Made a list of all persons we had harmed and became willing to make amends to them all. This step involves identifying those who have been hurt and preparing to make things right.
9. Made direct amends to such people wherever possible, except when to do so would injure them or others. Members take action to apologize and make amends to those they have wronged, as long as it doesn’t cause harm.
10. Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong promptly admitted it. Members regularly examine their actions to identify and correct mistakes as soon as they occur.
11. Sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with God as we understood Him, praying only for knowledge of His will for us and the power to carry that out. By engaging in spiritual practices, members seek guidance and power to fulfill their life’s purpose.
12. Having had a spiritual awakening as a result of these steps, we tried to carry this message to others, and to practice these principles in all our affairs. The final step involves sharing the recovery experience with others and integrating the spiritual principles into daily life.

Getting Started with NA in Dallas, Texas, USA

To find local NA meetings in Dallas, users can utilize online resources like methadone.org or narcotics.com for up-to-date information. Meetings are typically available both in-person and online, offering flexibility for those seeking support.

Attending Your First Local NA Meeting

When attending your first NA meeting, it’s helpful to arrive early and introduce yourself as a new member. If you feel comfortable, you may choose to share your experiences. Many groups offer welcome keychain tags to mark progress and milestones in recovery.

Tag Milestone	Description
30 Days	Recognizes one month of continuous sobriety.
60 Days	Marks two months of ongoing recovery.
1 Year	Signifies a full year of sobriety.

NA meetings can be categorized into two main types:

Type of Meeting	Description
Open Meetings	Available to anyone who wishes to attend, including non-addicts. These meetings encourage guests to learn more about NA.
Closed Meetings	Exclusive to addicts themselves, providing a safe space for sharing and support.

When attending a meeting, it is customary to receive a welcome or milestone keychain tag. These tags are tokens of encouragement that mark progress in recovery and serve as reminders of the community’s support.

For those new to NA, arriving early at the meeting allows time to meet other members and get settled before sharing begins. It’s a good idea to introduce yourself and express your intentions for attending, even if you just listen and absorb the experiences shared by others.

NA meetings in Dallas provide a supportive environment for individuals to overcome addiction and find a new way to live. With its 12-step program and ongoing community support, Narcotics Anonymous offers hope and a path toward recovery for addicts across the city.

With the growing awareness about the negative effects of anabolic steroids, some people have been trying alternative muscle-building drugs like D-Bal Max. This supplement is extremely popular nowadays, having sold more than 180,000 bottles online. It’s promoted by many as one of the best non-steroid supplements for building muscle and strength in a safe manner. But with so many options available out there, you probably wonder: does D-Bal Max really work or is it just another overhyped product?

In this review, we will dive deep into D-Bal Max to give you a clear view of what it is, how it works, and whether it is worth investing in for your fitness journey. This article should give beginners trying to increase muscle mass, and experienced athletes trying to find an edge, all the information they need to make an educated decision on whether D-Bal Max is for them.

D-Bal Max is a legal, more natural alternative to anabolic steroids, which bodybuilders and athletes use to enhance the building of muscles. The serious side effects of anabolic steroids, however, mean that supplements like D-Bal Max are increasingly popular today. According to this supplement, taking it will result in increased muscle mass, boosted strength, and better performance-all because of its natural support for your body’s testosterone levels and production of protein.

D-Bal Max Description

D-Bal Max is a type of muscle-building supplement that claims to help you in gaining mass, increase strength, and boost your performance level. That which differentiates it from other products on the market is the fact that it’s a natural alternative to anabolic steroids, such as Dianabol, for rapid muscle gains. Yet, their side effects, such as acne, liver damage, high blood pressure, mood swings, and even gynecomastia, make them very hazardous. It is due to this that several people seek less harmful, natural options.

D-Bal Max is produced by CrazyBulk, one of the leading manufacturers of natural bodybuilding supplements. The product is designed to mimic the benefits of anabolic steroids, but without the harmful side effects. It helps boost testosterone and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) levels in your body, which are essential for muscle growth. D-Bal Max raises those levels, which in turn supports the synthesis of protein (whereby your body builds new muscle), nitrogen retention to maintain muscles, and ATP production for energy purposes during rigorous workouts.

Users of D-Bal Max often experience quicker muscle gains, reduced soreness after workouts, improved energy and endurance during exercises, and faster recovery. It also helps people break through plateaus in their fitness progress, like when you have been stuck at a certain weight or strength level for a while. With the help of D-Bal Max, many users report feeling stronger, having more stamina, and seeing quicker results from their training.

In a nutshell, D-Bal Max presents a fat-free and natural alternative to bursting those barriers to fitness, faster muscle growth, and improved performance in the gym without any side effects caused by anabolic steroids.

Ingredients List with Explanations of D-Bal Max

D-Bal Max is created with natural ingredients that build muscle mass and strength, enhancing performance without the harmful side effects of anabolic steroids. Three primary ingredients make up the formula: Pro BCAA Complex, Whey Protein Complex, and 20-Hydroxyecdysterone. Each of these ingredients works in concert to support both muscle growth and recovery, thus making D-Bal Max a powerful supplement to improve one’s fitness results.

Pro BCAA Complex

BCAAs are essential amino acids, meaning your body cannot naturally synthesize them and needs to attain them through your diet or supplementation. The Pro BCAA Complex in D-Bal Max contains amino acids like leucine and valine, which play critical roles in muscle growth and recovery. BCAA supports protein synthesis, a process in which your body builds muscle tissue. They act by lowering serotonin levels in the body, which reduces feelings of fatigue during workout and allows you to work much longer or more intensely.

Also, apart from building muscle, BCAAs support better metabolism to burn fat, which is great for those who wish to develop lean muscles while at the same time getting rid of excess fat. Yet another benefit with BCAA is that it reduces post-workout soreness, enabling one to recover faster and get back into the gym sooner.

Whey Protein Complex

Whey protein is among the most common ingredients in muscle-building supplements, and there is no surprise it finds its place in D-Bal Max. Whey protein complex provides high-quality protein to the body that is utmost necessary for muscle growth and repair after intense workouts. Packed full of all the amino acids your body needs to fuel intense workouts and rebuild muscle tissue to be stronger than before.

One of the reasons whey protein is so effective is because it boasts a high biological value, meaning that your body will be able to absorb and utilize it efficiently. In addition to supporting muscle growth, whey protein also promotes fat loss and improves overall health through its metabolism-boosting effects and immune system support. On the other hand, if you are allergic to dairy, you might need to consult with your doctor before using D-Bal Max because of the whey protein content from cow’s milk.

20-Hydroxyecdysterone

Known as a “plant steroid,” 20-Hydroxyecdysterone is a natural plant extract that has been proven to greatly increase lean muscle growth. It’s all about boosting testosterone levels and stimulating protein synthesis for lean, hard muscle growth. The ingredient also optimizes ATP production, as ATP is the source of energy your muscles are using up when you work out, which means you can exercise longer and harder.

But 20-Hydroxyecdysterone does more than just increase your strength: it makes your muscles retain more nitrogen, which is highly useful to prevent muscle breakdown and to build up new muscle mass. It accelerates recovery by enhancing the nutritional processing in your body after training, which allows you to recover faster and perform even better in your next session.

Put together, these ingredients create a powerful combination that helps you to increase muscle mass more quickly, recover faster, and enhance general athletic performance. Whether you’re a beginner or an experienced gym-goer, D-Bal Max provides the support your body needs to reach its full potential.

How to Use D-Bal Max?

Taking D-Bal Max is pretty simple, and their recommended dosage is the key to achieving optimum results. It is available in pill form, and the company gives very clear recommendations on how to use it. Here is how to take D-Bal Max:

Recommended Dosage

The normal serving size for D-Bal Max is three capsules every day. The optimal time to take these capsules would be 30-45 minutes right after your workout, thus allowing your body to get the nutrients it needs most. If you are on a rest day, you could take the capsules with a meal to make sure that your body is continuously supplied with the nutrients it needs to grow and recover muscles.

Consistency is Key

Like the majority of supplements, D-Bal Max is most effective when taken consistently. Full benefits could be derived only if the recommended dosage is taken every day as directed. The tendency to skip some doses or to take the supplement irregularly may reduce its effectiveness, and the same level of results may not be achieved. Remember, consistency and discipline are crucial for any achievement in fitness.

Fortify it with Proper Diet and Exercise

While D-Bal Max can help you grow your muscles, it is not a magic pill. You need to complement this supplement with proper diet and healthy amounts of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. A diet that supports building muscle will increase the effectiveness of D-Bal Max. Moreover, going to the gym and taking strength-related exercises will facilitate your body receiving all the beneficial effects of the medication. D-Bal Max helps enhance your workouts, but the best results will be from all the work you put into the gym.

Cycling for Optimal Results

It is highly recommended that D-Bal Max be taken in cycles to avoid desensitization of the ingredients. One normal cycle would last approximately 8 weeks, with a break of 1.5 weeks in between. These cycles ensure that you will gain full value from the supplement and not get too accustomed to its components. Another cycle could then be started to further advance the progress after the rest period.

The results are best achieved with D-Bal Max by following the recommended usage and keeping a good diet and workout schedule. It is always recommended that one consults a doctor before starting any supplement course, especially in the case of predisposed medical conditions or health issues.

Pros and Cons of D-Bal Max

Any time a consumer is on the verge of adding anything new to their dietary routine, they need to balance out the pros and cons. As a result of research on D-Bal Max through customer reviews and from information provided by the manufacturer itself, though this supplement does come with its share of benefits, there are some drawbacks that users may find associated with its use. Let’s look at a couple of the pros and cons of D-Bal Max.

Pros of D-Bal Max

• All-Natural Ingredients – One of the standout features of D-Bal Max is that it’s made with all-natural ingredients. This means that, unlike anabolic steroids-so hazardous due to the side effects they produce-D-Bal Max offers muscle-building benefits without the risks. The natural formula was made to deliver the same impact that steroids do without harmful substances.
• D-Bal Max is also non-GMO and non-soy; therefore, it doesn’t cause any side effects in people allergic to such components or just avoid them for some health or ethical reasons. Thus, it is safe and cleaner for the majority of users.
• Prescription not Needed – Unlike other anabolic steroids, in whose intake a prescription is needed because of its health hazards, D-Bal Max does not require a prescription. This makes it more accessible because of those who seek legality and safety from products for muscle building.
• No Needles or Injections – Since D-Bal Max comes in easy-to-swallow capsules, you needn’t bother with injections or needles. Many people prefer this way of supplementing since it is simple and very convenient.
• 60-Day Money-Back Guarantee – The manufacturer offers a 60-day money-back guarantee. This gives users the confidence to try D-Bal Max risk-free. If you’re not satisfied with the results after trying it out, you can return the product for a full refund, hence considered a low-risk investment.
• Free Shipping Globally – D-Bal Max offers free global shipping, so whatever part of the globe you live in, you don’t have to pay extra money for this product when placing your order. That is a great plus, especially for international customers who would like to give this supplement a try.
• Discreet Packaging – The supplement is shipped in discreet packaging, which serves to ensure your order arrives privately without bringing attention. This becomes of essence, particularly to the category of customers who would wish to keep their health and fitness purchases private.
• Legal Alternative to Dianabol – D-Bal Max is a legal alternative to the anabolic steroid Dianabol. This makes it an attractive option for people who want the benefits of steroids without the legal risks and harmful side effects associated with them.

Cons of D-Bal Max

While D-Bal Max offers many advantages, it’s important to consider the potential drawbacks to determine if this supplement is the right fit for you.

• Not for Vegetarians or Vegans – D-Bal Max contains animal-derived components such as whey protein, thus not suitable for vegetarians or vegans. If you follow a plant-based diet, this might not be the best option for you.
• Not intended for Users Under 18 – D-Bal Max is designed for adults, and hence, it’s not recommended to any person below the age of 18 years. Younger people are discouraged from using the supplement since it enhances muscle growth and recovery in fully developed body conditions.
• Not recommended for pregnant or lactating women – Pregnant or lactating women must not consider D-Bal Max for them, as there is not enough research that can establish this product suitable for them. Always check with a healthcare professional if considering supplementing with a product during pregnancy or lactation.

Pros and Cons are what one needs to ponder over whenever one considers using D-Bal Max. The supplement has many benefits, including natural ingredients, a legal alternative to steroids, and a 60-day money-back guarantee. However, it may not be suitable for everyone, especially vegetarians, vegans, those under 18, or pregnant or nursing women. If you fall into one of these categories, you may want to consider other options. For most people, however, D-Bal Max affords a very good avenue for safe and legal improvements in the growth and performance of muscles.

Q&A – Frequently Asked Questions About D-Bal Max

Below, we try to answer the most common questions asked about D-Bal Max. If you are still uncertain about this supplement, continue reading to find out the answers to questions that are most frequently asked.

How long does it take to see results from D-Bal Max?

The time to see results may vary depending on your body, working out, and diet. But many users claimed to notice considerable changes in strength, energy, and muscle mass in a span of 2 to 4 weeks with continuous intake. For best results, take D-Bal Max in tandem with a regular workout routine and proper nutrition.

Can D-Bal Max be taken by women?

Yes, women can take D-Bal Max. The nature of the formulation is to enhance muscle growth, strength, and endurance, with no adverse side effects as would be seen in anabolic steroids. However, pregnant women, nursing mothers, and those under 18 years are not allowed to use this supplement.

Is D-Bal Max safe?

Yes, D-Bal Max is generally considered safe for healthy adults when used as directed. The ingredients are all-natural, and the facilities are FDA-inspected and cGMP-certified to ensure high standards of safety and quality. However, like with anything new, it’s always best to consult a healthcare professional if you have any pre-existing medical conditions or concerns.

How to take D-Bal Max?

The dosing for D-Bal Max is three capsules per day. Take the pills after your workout – approximately 45 minutes afterwards – with a glass of water. Please follow the bottle as instructed without overdoing the dosage.

What are the side effects of D-Bal Max?

Since D-Bal Max is prepared using natural elements, most users do not experience severe side effects. However, for some people, mild stomach discomfort or reactions can be seen in people who have specific allergies to certain ingredients, such as dairy (whey protein). You are better off stopping the supplement and visiting a doctor if you build up any side effects.

Where can I buy D-Bal Max?

You can buy D-Bal Max from the official website, with exclusive discounts available, shipping free, and a 60-day money-back guarantee. Purchasing directly from an official website can assure you of the real product and availability of these offers. Do not buy via third-party sellers to avoid counterfeit products.

Can I take D-Bal Max with other supplements?

Yes, you can take D-Bal Max along with other supplements, but make sure to stick to the dosage recommendations of each product. If you already take some supplements or medications, it is always good to consult with your doctor in order to avoid any drug interactions.

Is D-Bal Max better than anabolic steroids?

It is a safer, legal alternative to anabolic steroids. Anabolic steroids create dangerous side effects like liver damage, mood swings, and high blood pressure; D-Bal Max maintains the same benefits of muscles but without any unsafe responses. If you don’t want to take those risks, then D-Bal Max is considerably safer.

Summary

Allow us to summarize everything we have discussed in this overview with key takeaways to help you decide whether or not D-Bal Max is the right supplement for you.

D-Bal Max is a safe and legal alternative to the anabolic steroid Dianabol, intended to help you in building muscle, gaining strength, and enhancing your performance at the gym. Instead of steroids, D-Bal Max takes advantage of natural ingredients to give you the benefits of steroids in muscle building without the harmful side effects. It works through increasing testosterone levels, enhancing protein synthesis, and increasing mass and strength in muscles.

D-Bal Max offers a safe and effective solution for muscle growth and strength without the risks of anabolic steroids. With a 60-day money-back guarantee, you can try it risk-free to see if it works for you. Many users report positive results, such as increased muscle mass, better endurance, and quicker recovery. If you’re looking for a safe alternative to anabolic steroids to boost your fitness routine, D-Bal Max is worth considering.

The bottom line is this: D-Bal Max is a good, quality supplement for the serious fitness and muscle grower. It offers a safe, legal alternative to hazardous anabolic steroids that will help you reach your goals without compromising your health. If you are ready to take your workouts to the next level, D-Bal Max could be the supplement you are looking for.

Ostarine and Cardarine are two of the most popular SARMs currently available in the market due to the fact that they improve performance among athletes and individuals who lift weights. These types of products lead to increased muscle mass, fat loss, and endurance; hence, their demand is known within the bodybuilding and fitness niche. But what really sets Ostarine and Cardarine apart, and how can they help you achieve your fitness goals? In this article, we’ll take a deep dive into both compounds-individual benefits, how they work in conjunction, and how to take them safely for the best results.

Ostarine, also known as MK-2866, is widely recognized for its benefits in maintaining muscle mass while trying to lean out. It is usually taken by individuals who are on a weight cut yet need to keep their muscles or are trying to enhance their strength. Cardarine-also called GW-501516-is great for improving endurance by increasing fat burning, hence a favorite for vigilantes that want to enhance their cardiovascular fitness and stamina. Paired together, these two SARMs can be a powerful duo that complements both muscle growth and fat loss.

The main focus of this article will be the essential details regarding Ostarine and Cardarine, what they are, the mode of action, method of use, and advantages versus disadvantages by the customer’s feedback. We’ll be answering a couple of the most frequently asked questions, too, to give you a better idea about how to reap the most benefits from these kinds of products. Whether your goal is bulking up or getting lean, this guide will help you decide if Ostarine and Cardarine are right for you.

Ostarine and Cardarine Description

Ostarine, also known as MK-2866, and Cardarine, otherwise known as GW-501516, are two popular supplements that belong to the fitness world; however, they differ in purpose and their mode of action within the body. Though they are often put together because their names sound somewhat similar, one should know that they are different and that their respective effects are pretty varied.

Ostarine (MK-2866) is often considered a “mild” SARM, though it doesn’t fully function as one. SARMs are typically compounds designed to selectively target androgen receptors in muscle and bone tissue, mimicking the effects of testosterone. Ostarine is known for helping people preserve muscle mass while losing fat. It can improve strength and promote muscle growth, especially when you’re in a calorie deficit (trying to lose fat). This makes it one of the most popular options for those who want to “cut”-or, in other words, slim down with muscle mass, which is often quite hard naturally. Unlike stronger SARMs, Ostarine doesn’t have a strong impact on testosterone levels, meaning it’s less likely to cause issues such as suppression when on it.

Cardarine, on the other hand, GW-501516, is not actually a SARM. It doesn’t act through the pathways that Ostarine takes. Instead, Cardarine polishes up endurance and fat-burning properties. It does this by triggering a protein called PPAR-delta, which works to heighten the capacity of the body to burn fat for energy, especially during exercise. This makes it a favorite among those who wish to enhance their cardiovascular performance and endurance while burning fat more effectively. Summary: Cardarine is usually for athletes and fitness enthusiasts seeking to achieve great stamina and endurance during exercise, especially in the sport of running, cycling, or swimming.

Combined, Ostarine and Cardarine present a powerful combination in improving both muscle mass and fat loss, along with endurance. While Ostarine helps you maintain muscle and strength, Cardarine helps you burn fat and increase your stamina; thus, making them a great duo for fitness and bodybuilding goals.

Ingredients and Their Functions of Ostarine and Cardarine

Ostarine (MK-2866) and Cardarine (GW-501516) have active ingredients that function differently in improving physical performance. While they are closely related, their mode of activity is different in the body. How these ingredients function will help you understand why each product is indicated for specific uses.

Cardarine (GW-501516)

Cardarine, also known as GW-501516, is a type of medication that works through acting as a PPAR agonist. A PPAR agonist works by turning on certain receptors in the body which are considered to be very important in regulating metabolism and energy. Some of the following are mediated by these receptors, including:

Improved Metabolism:

Cardarine enhances your metabolic rate, thereby enabling your body to effectively burn more calories and fat.

Energy Regulation:

The activation of PPAR receptors by Cardarine aids the human body in managing energy production internally, hence leaving one with increased energy levels that can last for hours during workouts.

Fat Oxidation:

Among the key benefits which one can achieve through Cardarine is an increase in fatty acid oxidation for energy, helping one to reduce fat and manage body composition effectively.

Improved Endurance:

Cardarine also enhances stamina, making it easier to engage in workouts at extreme intensity without getting tired for longer.

Glucose Regulation:

It enhances the processing of glucose through one’s body, which is very crucial for energy balance and health in general.

These properties make Cardarine especially effective for all those who are concerned with enhancing cardiovascular fitness, fat burning, and stamina.

Ostarine (MK-2866)

Ostarine, otherwise known as MK-2866, is a true SARM. This means it works by acting on androgen receptors located in muscle and bone tissues. Its mechanism is pretty close to that of testosterone in the human body. Nonetheless, Ostarine does this very mildly, which in other terms simply means that it is not as potent as SARMs such as S-4 Andarine. The main benefits touted about Ostarine include:

Strengthens Muscle Tissue:

Ostarine helps to build and maintain lean muscle mass, which is essential for improving strength and overall performance.

Improved Bone Density:

It has a positive effect on bone health, making it a useful supplement for individuals with conditions like osteoporosis.

Muscle Preservation During Weight Loss:

Ostarine for the preservation of muscle mass in a calorie deficiency is important during the phase of weight loss or cutting, at least to ensure that body fat is shed off while you do not lose muscles.

Improves Muscle Protein Synthesis:

By doing so, it will be very helpful in the aspect of muscle repair and building, which is perfect for those who want an improved post-workout muscle recovery.

While both are performance-enhancing compounds, it’s really a very differently operating compound. Cardarine is more focused on endurance and fat loss, whereas Ostarine is primarily for the protection or building of muscle during a calorie deficit.

How to Use Ostarine and Cardarine?

Regarding the usage of both Ostarine and Cardarine, much depends on the dosage and timing if one is looking to achieve better results. Each of these compounds has a different purpose, so learning their safe and efficient use can make a difference in your fitness career path.

How to Take Ostarine (MK-2866):

Ostarine is taken orally, either liquid or in capsule form. Most users follow a dosage of 10-25 mg per day, depending on their experience level and goals. A lower dosage of about 10 mg is best for a beginner to see how their body responds. It’s still generally advised that the most experienced users wouldn’t need to go above 25mg daily, especially when it comes to more noticeable muscle retention or strength improvements, especially during a cutting phase.

Duration of Use:

The typical cycle length for Ostarine is 6 to 8 weeks, followed by a break. This cycle length helps your body adjust to the supplement and reduces the risk of any potential side effects. After completing the cycle, it’s important to take a break of at least 4 weeks to allow your body to return to its natural state.

How to Use Cardarine (GW-501516):

Cardarine is administered orally and is commonly used by athletes and bodybuilders to enhance physical performance and endurance, fat burning, and recovery from workouts. A typical dose of Cardarine is 10-20 mg a day in a single administration. The majority of the users prefer an early morning intake of the same since it keeps one energized and agile throughout the day.

How Long to Take It:

Cardarine is usually cycled like Ostarine for 6-8 weeks with breaks in between. Because it does not interfere with the body’s natural testosterone output or affect muscle mass in the same way Ostarine would, there is less risk of negative sides if taken longer. That being said, breaks are still recommended for optimal health and performance.

Ostarine and Cardarine Stacking:

Many users stack these compounds together in one stack for greater benefits. These are really popular for anyone looking to cut fat and keep muscle mass. Typical dosage for a stacked combination is 10 mg of Ostarine daily and 10-20 mg of Cardarine daily. This makes for a very effective combination in reaching your fitness goals by targeting both fat loss and muscle retention simultaneously, simply by stacking these two compounds.

Important Note:

Consult with a healthcare professional first before starting up a cycle of Ostarine or Cardarine if you have any concerns or other health conditions that may be underlying.

Pros and Cons of Ostarine and Cardarine Based on Customer Feedback

Whenever any supplement is taken up, one must look out for the positives, as well as some potential drawbacks. User feedback about Ostarine and Cardarine will help in understanding the advantages and difficulties of these compounds. Now, let’s delve into the pros and cons based on customer experiences.

Pros of Ostarine (MK-2866):

• Muscle Protection: Ostarine works really well to maintain lean muscle mass during a calorie deficit, according to many users. This is especially useful in a fat cut since one would like to avoid muscle loss; it has often been described as a “muscle protector.”
• Strength Gains: Users also report strength gains, particularly during heavier workouts. It may help enhance performance in weightlifting and resistance training by allowing users to work out harder.
• Low Side Effects: Ostarine does not have as many side effects as other SARMs or anabolic steroids. It has rather mild side effects compared to others, and for the most part, users have very few or no side effects at all, which makes this a much safer drug for first-timers in performance enhancement supplements.
• Bone Health Support: Ostarine has been used to support the conservation of bone density, which is extremely helpful for patients with conditions like osteoporosis. Some users even note improvements in joint health.

Cons of Ostarine (MK-2866):

• Mild Suppression of Testosterone: While Ostarine generally presents itself as mild, users report slight suppression of natural testosterone, especially when used over a longer period of time. This might result in reduced libido or reduced energy levels, though typically less severe compared to other SARMs that are much stronger or to anabolic steroids.
• Not a Strong Mass Builder: Ostarine is great at holding onto muscle, but for building outright mass, it’s not the best compared to other stronger SARMs. Users who seek rapid, bulk gains may find Ostarine less effective.

Pros of Cardarine (GW-501516):

• Enhanced Endurance: Users claim this is one of the major advantages of Cardarine. It increases endurance dramatically, they say. Many athletes and fitness enthusiasts say they can push themselves further during workouts and recover more quickly between sets.
• Fat Burning: Many people praise Cardarine for its efficacy in burning fat. It increases the rate of fat oxidation within the body, which is very helpful when one needs to lose weight or improve their body composition.
• Increased Energy and Endurance: Users describe having more energy and being able to push themselves harder in workouts. The effectiveness of Cardarine, on the other hand, is strong when it comes to enhancing cardiovascular stamina and endurance.

Cons of Cardarine (GW-501516):

• Lack of Muscle Building Effects: While quite effective for fat loss and endurance, Cardarine does nothing in terms of building good muscle mass. This makes the compound less effective for people who want to gain muscle mass along with fat loss.
• Possible Health Effects in the Long Run: A few long-term Cardarine studies have raised some concern about the damage it may cause to the liver, although such studies are few. Though no tangible side effects have been proven for short-term use, it is recommended to cycle and monitor your health while on it.
• Not for Everyone: Due to the nature of Cardarine’s action on PPAR receptors, this chemical might be unsuitable for everyone, especially people who have health conditions related to blood sugar or cholesterol.

In this section, we reviewed both the pros and cons of Ostarine and Cardarine based on real customer feedback. While both compounds have their advantages, they also come with some potential drawbacks, so it’s important to weigh the benefits against the risks and consult with a healthcare professional before use.

Q&A About Ostarine and Cardarine

Supplements such as Ostarine and Cardarine are a bit confusing to understand; hence, it will be good to create an FAQ section that will clarify all the ambiguities. So, here’s an explanation of some important questions most people ask about these compounds.

Are Ostarine and Cardarine safe to take?

Both Ostarine and Cardarine can be described as fairly safe when used appropriately, but as with any supplement, there is always some risk involved. Ostarine is a mild SARM, and most users report very few side effects; some users may experience slight suppression of testosterone. Cardarine does not affect testosterone, but it may pose some long-term health risks due to its impact on the liver, as found in limited animal studies. It is recommended to strictly adhere to the dosing and cycle length, and one should always consult with a physician prior to using either.

Is stacking allowed between Ostarine and Cardarine?

Yes, Ostarine and Cardarine are commonly stacked together, especially for individuals looking to lose fat while maintaining muscle mass. Ostarine helps preserve muscle tissue, and Cardarine improves fat-burning and endurance. Together, they provide a balanced approach to both cutting and performance improvement. When stacking them, users typically take 10 mg of Ostarine and 10-20 mg of Cardarine daily for 6-8 weeks.

Will Ostarine or Cardarine cause testosterone suppression?

Ostarine provides slight suppression of the testosterone level, though it usually is much softer than stronger SARMs or anabolic steroids. Cardarine does not suppress testosterone at all since its mode of performance within the organism is completely different. However, in case you care about the level of testosterone, you’re supposed to cycle off Ostarine in several weeks to let your body recover naturally.

Can I take Ostarine or Cardarine for fat loss?

Yes, both Ostarine and Cardarine can help with weight loss, but they do so in different ways. Ostarine helps preserve muscle mass during fat loss, which is important when you’re trying to maintain strength while shedding pounds. Cardarine, on the other hand, is specifically effective for burning fat by increasing your body’s ability to oxidize fatty acids, making it a popular choice for cutting fat and improving endurance during exercise.

How long does it take to see results from Ostarine and Cardarine?

Users of Ostarine/Cardarine start to notice changes within the first 2-3 weeks. For Ostarine, you will be able to notice improvements in muscle retention and even a little in strength. The effects of Cardarine, such as increased endurance and fat loss, are usually felt after a few weeks of use. This, however, fully materializes after about 6-8 weeks, especially when one is using both supplements in a stack.

Do I have to take time off between cycles of Ostarine and Cardarine?

Yes, it is recommended that between cycles, one allows the body time to recover. In fact, typical cycles for both Ostarine and Cardarine are 6-8 weeks, followed by breaks of 4 weeks. This will prevent your body from getting used to these supplements too much, which minimizes any probable side effects. It also helps your body maintain natural hormone levels and supports general health.

Short Summing Up

Ostarine, MK-2866, and Cardarine, GW-501516, are two popular compounds that have different purposes in the fitness world but can be complementary to each other. Ostarine is a SARM that contributes to maintaining muscle mass and enhancing strength, mainly when one is on calorie deficits or going through fat-loss phases. On the other hand, Cardarine works as a PPAR agonist, focusing on enhancing fat burning, endurance, and overall energy levels.

Both of these compounds can have very pronounced benefits, but neither acts through similar mechanisms nor plays the same roles. Ostarine is excellent for those who wish to preserve muscles and strength, whereas Cardarine has a better influence on fat loss and stamina. It goes without saying that stacked, they would be a fantastic choice for those looking to cut fat while maintaining muscle mass, particularly for athletes or fitness enthusiasts.

But, as with any supplement, possible risks and side effects must be taken into consideration. Ostarine suppresses testosterone mildly, while the long-term safety of Cardarine is still in scrutiny due to animal studies showing potential liver concerns. Both should be used responsibly, with proper dosages and cycles, and it’s best always to consult a healthcare professional before starting anything new.

To sum everything up, from fat loss to strength and endurance gains, Ostarine and Cardarine can be a good addition to one’s fitness arsenal if used correctly, making sure that your body is heard and taking breaks in between cycles.

 

Dehydration. The Nuts, Bolts and Spanners.

Introduction
Although written from the perspective of a medicinal herb grower, it must be understood that the ownership of a dehydration apparatus is of great economic benefit for the grower, irrespective of the type of crop grown.

The usage may be extended to timber, fish, fruit, vegetables flowers and herbs. The operation of such apparatus immediately removes the grower from the vagaries of the fresh market treadmill, and promotes them to the level of wholesaler from the primary production level.

Herbology, in the correct sense is the natural medicines equivalent, of the old Galenic disciplines of Pharmacognosy and Pharmacy. No natural healer may ignore the foundations of the medicines that they use, without a corresponding lack of knowledge, in terms of the efficacy or otherwise of the herbal medicine employed by that healer.

Traditionally the knowledge of such matters was in the hands of the monasteries of old. Not only did the monks provide hospital and medical services, but they grew and prepared the medicines, which they dispensed
.
Heat and Air Convection 5.1
For the purpose of this chapter, the following table should be taken as
 
‘Standard Values’ (StV)
Ambient air temperature 15° Celsius
Atmospheric pressure 101 kPa (760mm Hg)
Water temperature 12° Celsius
Herb at water temperature 12° Celsius

Two variables are required to successfully dehydrate or evaporate a substance, ie, heat and air movement.

It should be now understood that the quality and potency of dried herb is a function not only of the soil that produced the crop, but also a function of the time taken to kill and stabilize the herb. Therefore, it is of prime importance that the correct balance between heat and air movement is attained for an energy efficient and quality crop.

Air Convection 5.2
Air convection falls into two categories;

1. Natural Convection; i.e. the tendency for warm air to rise; for example the convective forces set in motion by the energy of the sun falling upon the earth.

By the early 1800’s, comparatively large scale herb production units were well established and able to supply distant as well as local markets, eg., tea, coffee, tobacco and hops. Because of the unreliability of solar energy, artificial heat was resorted to for the production of convective forces to enhance the drying process.

The drying apparatus was either a shed or a kiln; and the convected or displaced air was made good either by natural leakage through gaps and cracks or by windows and vents.

Kilns were usually employed where a two stage drying process was required, e.g., tobacco drying, where the leaf was first sweated and yellowed to destroy starches and sugars before the leaf was finally killed by dehydration.

The drying shed was favored by the medicinal and culinary herb growers, whose aim was to produce the herb in as near a whole state as possible, within the limits of available technology.

The use of drying sheds removed many of the problems associated with sun or shade drying. The sheds were usually longer than they were wide. The heat was provided by combustion stoves placed at intervals along the length of the shed.

Typical Drying Shed Figure 5.2A

Hitherto, unheated sheds or buildings were the norm; so the introduction of an independent heat source was a great improvement, which provided better quality herbs for market. Subsequent improvements in combustion control and the provision of adjustable convection vents, enabled the grower to reduce the overall drying period to between 36 and 48 hours.

However, large areas of drying surface were required and frequent handling of the herb was necessary to eliminate wet spots, with consequent damage from leaf shatter. Nonetheless, the drying shed allowed the herb grower a modicum of production planning and economic security that was previously out of reach. However, within a few short years the introduction of forced convection revolutionized the practice of dehydration so that what was previously an art, became both art and science.

2. Forced Convection, or the directed movement of air from one place to another is achieved by the use of a fan, which when coupled to circulation ducts, give the herb grower almost complete control over the drying process. The method required a further energy input, but the gains in efficiency and planning far outweigh capital and running costs. During peak harvesting periods the grower was able to undertake continuous day and night operations, irrespective of weather, with drying times greatly reduced and predictable to within an hour.

Types of Air Convection 5.3
For the purpose of dehydration, forced air circulation may be placed in three categories;

1. Air Push – one fan mounted at the air inlet.

2. Air Pull – one fan mounted at the air outlet.

3. Balanced – two fans, one at inlet and one at outlet.

The Single Fan System 5.4
In practice, single fan systems are usually employed on small cultivations of 5000 m³ or less. Fan size is determined by the size of the dehydrator, which in turn is determined by the size of the area under cultivation. For practical reasons, single fan systems are inefficient, irrespective of the area under cultivation, and are not recommended for areas of over 5000 m³.

When a fan moves air in an enclosed space a small drop in air pressure is created on the air inlet side of the fan, thus increasing air throughput. This creates increased static pressure which the fan must overcome, i.e. the air moving through the fan must start to push against the static air on its outlet side and set it in motion.

Static pressure is increased by obstructions, e.g. sharp angles in air ducts and the presence of herb and dehydrator furniture, (trolleys or racks). To overcome static pressure, an increase in velocity pressure must be supplied by increasing power input. If a fan power rating is too low, or if its blades are of the wrong type, the net result is to stir the air instead of pushing it. In such circumstance, the air pull system would be better than the air push system.

Single fan systems are unsatisfactory if air recirculation is needed and wet spots are a common occurrence.

The Balanced System 5.5
The balanced two fan system will give precise control of air flow and can be relied upon to give good results under most conditions. The extra power required is offset by increased efficiency and fuel economy.

Air Movement 5.6
Moving air has velocity or speed which, in the context of fan technology, is measured in meters per second. The actual volume of air moved is calculated in cubic meters of air per second, or, better still, for our purpose, in liters of air per second. 1000 liters has a volume of 1 m³.

Manufacturers rate their fans in accordance with the ability to deliver a given volume of air against a given static pressure. Therefore, when specifying requirements the following terms should be used; cubic meters per second (m³/s) or liters per second (l/s).

Types of Fans 5.7
The ability of a fan to ‘deliver’ is not solely a function of power. How the air is moved, i.e. stirred or pushed, is of more importance for herbal dehydration than just brute force. Fan blades, that merely stir the air are counter productive and can lead to dew point occurring in the drying chamber. Fans may be placed in the following categories;

A. Disc Fans.

B. Axial Flow Fans.

C. Centrifugal Fans.

Disc Fans are cheap to buy. Typical of the type is the portable domestic or office fan, and also the ceiling mounted type. The blade configurations are designed to stir, rather than push the air; and would have an average power rating of 250 watt. They are not suitable for dehydration purposes.

Centrifugal Fans may be encountered where there are large volumes of air required for industrial ventilation such as mines and tunnels. They are similar in operation to the domestic cross flow fan, which are usually found as a component of the so called fan heater. Second hand industrial types are easily obtained, and in terms of air flow may be considered satisfactory. The major drawback is the size and the amount of power required to run them.

The Axial Flow Fan must take pride of place for herbal dehydration purposes. They are efficient and able to deliver against the type of static pressure that is encountered in a loaded dehydrator; and if an air recirculation system is incorporated in a dehydrator, then the axial flow fan is essential. They are widely available, moderately priced, and are supplied with control gear, so that air volume may be varied at will. They are rated from 250 liters per second and upwards by convenient increments. A vehicle radiator fan is a good example and with a bit of ingenuity could be utilized for small dehydration units.

Factors in Fan Selection 5.8
In terms of energy use, static pressure costs money. Bad dehydrator design will considerably increase energy requirements. Long narrow and sharply angled bends in ducting can more than double the frictional drag, which is engendered by dehydrator loading and furniture.

The amount of air delivered by a fan will decrease with an increase of static pressure. Therefore, an increase of power is needed to overcome static pressure. The static pressure within the system will rise as a square of the velocity pressure, this occurs because the air gets compressed on the outlet side of the fan, consequently, a large input of energy is needed to produce a modest increase in velocity.

You will now understand why two fans are better than one, and in the right circumstance will use less power than a single fan system. When purchasing fans it would be wise to increase your estimated air volume requirements by 50%. The aerodynamics of a given fan may suit your requirements, but thought must be given to its operating environment.

Remember the drying ratios for herbal material, e.g. 1 tonne of fresh herb contains around 750 kg/liters of water. In addition to the fans internally generated heat, it must pass heated air at up to 60°C on a continuous basis. The outlet fan will also need to cope with atmospheric conditions; so it is essential that the supplier be given full details of expected operating conditions. If you fail to do that, and there are subsequent problems, you may forfeit guarantee or consumer protection rights.

Do not forget that ‘cheapest’ may turn out to be the most expensive. The means of calculating the air volume requirements for a dehydrator will be dealt with later on in the text.

The Production of Heated Air 5.9
The production of heated air is a relatively simple matter and commercial systems of many types are widely available.Typical of the portable variety is the ‘hot air blower’, which is commonly found in the form of domestic fan heaters. For obvious reasons, they are not suitable for the dehydration of fresh herb.

However, they may serve the purpose of a cabinet type conditioning dryer. Such dryers are used to condition previously dried herb, which has been in storage. The herb will be at equilibrium moisture; usually 10 to 12% and will need to be conditioned to around 8% moisture for onward processing. The maximum drying chamber is around 2 m³, and will hold around 15 kg of dried herb, ie., 90 grams of moisture to be removed.

Industrial size hot air blowers are commonly used as space heaters in workshops and are often found in horticultural operations, eg., for the heating of tunnel houses for out of season crops. The industrial versions are dual power units, i.e. electricity is used for ignition and operation of the fan blower, whilst the combustion is provided by a fossil fuel such as kerosene or gas. The noxious and carcinogenic combustion products are moisture laden, and are deposited onto the growing or drying crops.

The situation is analogous to venting a vehicle exhaust into an enclosed space and is not an acceptable procedure for herbal dehydration. The common alternative is to combust a fuel of choice within an enclosed chamber. The hot gas is then led away by means of a flue pipe and vented to the atmosphere, (see drying shed), the stove and flue pipes then radiate heat energy to the ambient air.

Fuel Energy politics 5.10
Queen Beatrix, in her 1988 Christmas broadcast to the people of Holland, had this to say;

“The Earth is slowly dying, and the inconceivable,the end of life itself, is actually becoming conceivable. 
We have become a threat to our planet”.

To simply say that “they must do something”, is to suffer from a crisis of perception, because ‘they’, is ‘us’, as individuals. Each of us must exercise the options that are open to us if we wish to weather the global climate change process.

To quote Buckminster Fuller, “If you are not part of the solution, then you are part of the problem”.

We already have the alternative and appropriate energy solutions; what is needed is that we loosen the grip that the corporate energy providers have upon us, and select in a conscious and responsible manner the energy appropriate to need. I am not advocating hair shirts and flagellation, because if you need a cell phone, then it is not appropriate to launch your own satellite, or lay your own fibre optic cable. If we are to have any degree of freedom then the individual must be able to select from the menu what is ‘appropriate’ to need, without being dictated to.

High and Low Grade Energy 5.11
The definition of high and low grade energy is somewhat hazy. It is normally taken to mean; ‘that threshold, below which a given process cannot take place; and that threshold above which a given process can take place’; therefore, the threshold will depend upon the resources available. A passive solar system in the terms of industrial production is low grade energy. However, with people and land, low grade energy can be converted to a sustainable high energy catalyst.

Figure 5.11A

To reach this level you start from where you are and tap into available corporate energy supplies, and slowly break the hold that they have on you.

Combustion and Fuel Values 5.12
Combustion or burning, is a chemical process involving carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen reacts with the fuel and produces combustion products, some of which contribute to ozone layer damage. The reaction is sensed as heat and light.

Combustibles may be solid, liquid or gaseous; and the fuel energy values that follow should be read as mean global values, because the hydrocarbon chemical content of fossil fuels, eg,. coal, oil or gas, vary according to the geographical source. The same situation applies to bio-mass fuels, eg., wood or ethanol.

Table 5.12A

Fuel Type	Source	State	Energy kJ/kg.
Carbon	Elemental	Solid	33000
Coal	Fossil	Solid	30000
Coke	Coal	Solid	28000
Fuel Oil	Fossil	Liquid	42000
Kerosene	Oil	Liquid	45000
Petrol	Oil	Liquid	45000
Coal Gas	Coal	Gaseous	20000
Methane	Bio.	Gaseous	42000
Natural Gas	Oil	Gaseous	38000
Charcoal	Bio.	Solid	33000
Ethanol	Bio.	Liquid	28000
Wood	Bio.	Solid	20000
Solar Energy	Sun	Radiant	1.025 kW/m2

The Table may be read in many different ways, and the overall interpretation depends on which bias is used, e.g. cost per kg related to energy values; or cost per kg related to global values; or cost per kg related to local availability.

However, for many people there is no luxury of choice for an energy source except, take it or leave it. Those of us who live in the affluent nations, have a choice which is only limited by personal financial constraints. Therefore, it is up to each of us to accept and take up the challenge to create a sustainable future for our children. Sustainable is the key.

Solar Energy 5.13
Sun worship was the crowning facet of many cultures and it needs no great breadth of imagination to understand why. All substance known to mankind are nothing more, or nothing less, than solar matter; either from our own sun or more distant ones.

Everything is energy and the primary difference between one substance and another, at a sub-atomic level is the degree of condensation of the solar matter. Helio-technology is not new, it has been with us for thousands of years in one form or another; as a science it is around 110 years old.

Solar energy is the sub-strata of all other energy forms; and when we combust a fuel, we release stored solar energy. The energy may be ancient, as in fossil fuels which are finite. Old, as in mature stands of forest, or recent, as in fast growing softwood trees, methane or ethanol.

So sustainability depends on what level we tap into the energy tree, and how efficient our conversion systems are, and most important, how reliable they are. Accordingly, if we tap into the energy tree at the solar, hydro or wind levels, then a storage system is necessary. Remember that wind and water are manifestations of solar radiation.

The Solar Constant 5.14
Solar radiation is not constant; it is in a state of flux. However, for the purpose of scientific calculation, it has been given a mean value, which is called the Solar Constant. The constant is a measure of energy radiated from the sun, per unit of area, perpendicular to the suns rays, as measured at the outer limits of the earths atmosphere, and corresponds to the following measurement;

1.360 kW/m².

The value of the 1.025 kW/m², which is given in Table 5.12A, is the mean value of the solar radiation upon the earths surface from the outer atmosphere and a sky vault clear of cloud. The solar constant does not represent the amount of energy available to an earthbound collector. The amount collected would depend on a combination of variables;

1. Collector latitude and angle.

2. Efficiency of the collector.

3. Hours of sunlight and seasonal variations.

4. The amount of pollution and cloud cover.

Solar collectors that track the sun across the sky are available; but there are limiting factors such as size and cost, therefore, for practical and economic reasons, most collectors are fixed azimuth and angle. The azimuth is meridian, and the angle between 45° and 60° according to latitude.

Figure 5.14A shows the theoretical intensity of solar radiation falling on a horizontal surface, with corrections for altitude of the collector. Practical experimentation, and allowing for the variables, indicates that a 30% reduction of the figures derived would be more accurate. The chart may be applied North or South of the equator.

Figure 5.14A

Remember that the chart depicts the suns rays falling onto a flat horizontal surface. Accordingly, as the surface rises in altitude, then the sun angle is being decreased, which increases the distance that the radiation had to travel, however, the increasing clarity of the atmosphere produces solar gain.

Therefore, irrespective of the altitude, the angle of a solar collector must match as near as possible the solar altitude. For a fixed collector, the best angle is the average sun angle for a 12 month period, as logged in your region.

Solar Energy as Sole Heat Source 5.15
It may be readily understood from Figure 5.14A, that for practical reasons, on a small scale, solar energy, unless fed through a conversion system, is low grade energy. It is excellent for water or space heating in living accommodation, workshops or store rooms.

Conversion Systems 5.16
There are many sophisticated conversion systems, most of which are beyond the tooling and economic capacity of the average person. (For example, focusing collectors in conjunction with various forms of heat exchangers, or the high technology photo-voltaic panels with storage batteries and current converters.) From the ‘do-it-yourself’ angle there are wind, hydro and bio-gas converters, so the options open are many. However, caution is required, because the technology you choose can free you or enslave you. It can accelerate or help the planet to maintain equilibrium.

Conversion Systems and Global Warming 5.17
In May 1990, the UN IPCC. Working group on global warming, completed a detailed doomsday report; the figures given in this section are abstracted from that report.

To produce high grade energy a conversion system is essential, and all energy conversion systems contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. The greenhouse gases are essential to the life of the planet, but it is all a question of balance, and because of the overwhelming complexity of the planetary cycles, we do not know where the critical balance point is.

The increasing incidence of freak weather conditions are the first symptoms of fever. If the planet starts to sweat and shiver, then our support structures, i.e. food, water, sewage, power, medical care, and communications will collapse Choose your conversion and conservation wisely.

Table 5.17A

Greenhouse Gas	Main Source	Rate of Increase	% of Total
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)	Fossil fuel burning, Deforestation	0.5 % per year	55%
Chlorofluorocarbons	Industrial & domestic Refrigerants	4 % per year	24%
Methane (CH4)	Wetlands, rice paddies & animal Flatulence	0.9 % per year	15%
Nitrous oxide (N2O)	Biomass burning & fossil fuel combustion	0.8 % per Year	6%

In 1989, the United States Department of Energy issued the data upon which the following Table is based.
The figures represent metric tonnes of CO₂ emitted per GW/hour (Giga Watt), i.e., one thousand million watts.

Table 5.17B

Conversion  Technology	Extraction Technology	Construction Technology	Actual Conversion	Total per G/W hour.
Coal Fired	1	1	962	964
Oil Fired	?	?	726	726 ++
Gas Fired	?	?	484	484 ++
Geothermal	N/A	3.7	300.3	340
Hydro power	N/A	10	N/A	10
Wind	N/A	7.4	N/A	7.4
Photo voltaic	N/A	5.4	N/A	5.4
Solar Thermal	N/A	3.6	N/A	3.6
Wood on a basis of sustainable harvest.	Minus 1509.1	2.9	1346.3	Minus 159.9

Dehydration and Solar Energy 5.18
Solar energy, as a stand alone system for herbal dehydration, presents several problems;

1. Solar radiation received on a daily basis is not predictable with any degree of accuracy.

2. Unless some form of a heat storage device, that can provide sustained release, is included in a dehydrator that operates on solar energy, then it is possible that dew point will occur during the nocturnal hours.

3. Under operational conditions, a solar dehydrator with natural convection, at a latitude of 36° South, could not better a two day drying period during the summer months. The higher the humidity the longer the process will take.

4. The operator has no effective control over the process.

The problems may be summarized as lack of quality and production efficiency. The degree of catabolism that occurs in the drying herb is a function of time.

Generally, extended drying times, are detrimental to quality. The time of harvest is not under the growers control. An estimate of when the crop is at peak condition can be made, thereafter, around three days either side of that date, in which to harvest and process, to obtain a quality crop.

A cultivation of 0.25 ha would yield on average 2000 kg of fresh herb. A 1 x 1 metre drying tray will hold on average 3.5 kg of chopped fresh herb, therefore with a seasonal average drying period of 3 days, 300 m² of drying space would be required if losses were not to occur. The energy needed to dehydrate 2000 kg of fresh herb in a 3 x 8 hour day, approximates 42 kW/hr i.e. the solar air panel would need to be 42 m² in size, and this is on the assumption of 24 hours of brilliant sunshine per day. If the herb were to be dried in the correct manner then a solar air panel would need to be circa 160 m² in size.

Accordingly solar energy as a stand alone system for herbal dehydration may be seen as ‘right idea’ but ‘inadequate technology. In arid regions where the availability of bio-fuels is a problem, then the matter of dew point in the dehydrator during the hours of darkness, may be addressed by the provision of a mud brick or concrete block apron, to act as a heat storage device for a slow sustained release of heat to the dehydrator during the hours of darkness.

Biomass Conversion to Energy 5.19

Energy Out ÷ Energy In = Efficiency %

A deciduous tree is a sublime statement at any level of approach. As a solar tracking and conversion system it has no peer. The leaves represent many thousands of individual solar trackers and diffuse radiation scavengers, i.e. a solar panel that covers hundreds of square meters with infinite combinations for solar altitude and azimuth. It switches off when net energy gain reaches zero, and switches on again when energy levels are at break even.

The earth’s landmass represents about 30% of the total area of the planet. Trees and plants in dry mass terms, produce about 115 thousand million tons of biomass, of which, we harvest about 1.2 billion tons for food. Figures of that magnitude are meaningless unless they are reduced to human scale. The current practice of clear felling forests, for no other reason than shareholders short term gain, only serves to illustrate the insanity of an economic system founded on usury. Such practices threaten the long term viability of the planet to sustain life.

Table 5.19A

Nett Ecosystem Productivity in g/m²/year and its relationship to precipitation.

Eco-System	Average
Cultivated Land	650 gm
Desert and Scrub	90 gm
Temp. Deciduous Forest	1200 gm
Temp. Evergreen Forest	1300 gm
Tropical Rain Forest	2200 gm

Given some thought, it will be understood that we have the basis for sustainable high grade energy production. A 1 hA wood-lot    harvested on a sustainable basis, would produce around 8 m³ of solid timber per year. 1m³ of mixed timber would average 500kg in weight. The calorific value of wood averages 20,000 kJ/kg (table 5.12A) which equates to 10⁶ kJ/m³.

 

 

 

That is sufficient energy to dehydrate 30 tonnes of fresh herb. When timber is burnt to provide high grade energy, in addition to the heat energy produced, there, is also a large volume of various gases released. The actual amount produced, per kg of wood, depends on the efficiency of the burner, that means more heat, less gas, or less heat, more gas.

The gas contains valuable by products that may be recovered by using home workshop technology. For example, tar and creosote, which are a timber preservatives. Current timber preservative methods and substances are destructive of the biosphere.

Biomass may be converted to ethanol by fermentation and distillation. The alcohol may then be used as fuel and for the solvent extraction of medicinal herbs. The technology and methods will be covered in Module 6.

 

Components of a Dehydrator 5.20
The requirements of dehydration are simple;

1. Drying Chamber.

2. Air Heating Device.

3. Air Moving Device.

These basic components may be combined in various ways. The drying methods described here may be adapted to match cultivations from 100 m² to 4 ha. Such apparatus may also be fabricated and moved from site to site.

Fig 5.20A The Vertical Stack

 

The vertical or gravity stack is usually employed as a conditioning dryer.

In field conditions it has severe ergonomic and capacity problems and is not recommended for a cultivation in excess of 400 m².

 

 

 

 

Fig 5.20B The Horizontal Stack.

The horizontal stack may operate as a single or twin fan dryer depending on its size The heater and plenum may be situated according to the drying method employed.

Ergonomically suitable for up to 10,000m².

 

Fig 5.20C. The Tunnel Dryer

The tunnel dryer was a development of the horizontal stack .It may be scaled to meet the needs of cultivations ranging from 1 to 5 ha.

Basically it is a tunnel, through which hot air is blown. The herbal material is progressed through on trayed trolleys. This type of dryer will meet all the requirements. It may be used for parallel and counter flow drying, and the air may be re circulated as needed.
 

Air Heating Components 5.21
Herbal material should, under no circumstances, be exposed to direct radiation as a method of drying. Air must be heated first and then passed to the drying chamber. This is done by first passing the air across a heat radiating surface. The most convenient method is to incorporate a heating device into the heat plenum as shown below.

Fig. 5.21A

Considerable savings in energy may be achieved by including a solar air heating panel as the air inlet for the heat plenum.

Fig 5.21B The Hybrid System

The solar panel may be mounted to suit, i.e. wall, roof or free standing. If flexible ducting is used, the panel angle can be adjusted to match the seasonal solar angle; that would give a significant heat gain. Depending on the air flow through the panel, a temperature boost in the range of 5° to 15°C could be expected. Air flow through the panel can be modified by inserting baffles and introducing adjustable air vents to the heat plenum.

Chapter 5 Part 2.

Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

Earth Air Fire and Water
The Pharmageddon Herbal
Chapter 4 Part 3

Macroscopic and Microscopic Quantities. 4.24
Physics may be called the wholistic science, the science of everything, and from which, every other branch of science must draw sustenance.

Physics seeks to link each component of the known universe; and further to link the macroscopic quantities and properties of each component to its microscopic counterpart. It was by employing microscopic or reductionist methods, that physics was able to demonstrate the quintessential unity of the macrocosm, i.e. the Hermetic viewpoint.

The intellectual journey from concept to demonstration was a tour de force of human reasoning power, from which stream a multitude of benefits.

The concept of time allows us to make sense of the profusion of natural phenomena that surrounds us. It is fundamental to all of our activities, and the greatest degree of accuracy is obtained, by measuring microscopic quantities. Example, the S.I. Unit for time is the ‘second’ (s).

An instrument to measure time is the clock. Around the year 1900, the best degree of accuracy that we possessed was a clock that only lost 1 second every three months, ie, an accuracy of 0.01 of a second. 103 years later we are able to measure time with the so called atomic clock, whereby time is measured against the vibratory rate of the cesium atom (see Periodic Table. Atomic number 55), which only gains 1 second in 27,000 years, an accuracy of 0.0000001 of a second.

For the purpose of dehydration we need to work with the macroscopic concepts of time , temperature, pressure, volume and energy; therefore, it is an aid to the understanding of the base units used, if it is borne in mind that each base unit is linked to the microscopic quantity and property.

Work 4.25
Pushing a stalled vehicle in order to start it is a common sight. The person pushing the vehicle is applying force, to make the vehicle move, ie, they are doing the work.

The amount of work done is measured by multiplying force, by the distance through which it travels.

The unit of force is the Newton (N). A unit of work is formed from the units of force and distance, the unit is the Newton /metre, which is called the Joule. (J).

Power 4.26
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done. The S.I. Unit for power is the Watt (W). One watt equals 1 joule per second (1 J /s), therefore, 1W is the force of 1 Newton moving through a distance of one metre in 1 second. (N/m/s).

Energy 4.27
Anything which is able to do work contains potential or stored energy, eg, a piece of coal is potential heat which is released when it is burnt; in other words, the energy is released by initiating a non reversible chemical change (see section 5-8).

Energy can be classified into 3 types, which are;

(1) Potential energy, eg, a piece of wood, an electrical battery or water stored behind a hydro-electric dam.

(2) Heat energy (refer. Section 4.10) is connected to the vibratory rate of atoms and molecules, therefore, heat energy is a potential of all matter, e.g. burning of fossil fuels.

(3) Kinetic energy is the potential energy of a body in motion, eg, the arm drives the cue, which strikes the cue ball, which strikes the pool or snooker ball. At each point of impact, the velocity or potential energy, is converted to kinetic energy, which transfers, in part to the object struck, i.e. a kinetic exchange occurs.

A more relevant example would be that of warm dry air passing through a dehydrator; on entering it contains more heat and less moisture. Heat is taken up by the herb, which releases moisture to the air. Therefore, the air on leaving contains less heat and more moisture, than on entry. A kinetic change has occurred.

Thermodynamics 4.28
Thermodynamics is a branch of science that deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of energy.

The principle of the conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created or destroyed, but is convertible from 1 form to another e.g. heat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible, therefore 1 joule of work equals 1 joule of heat. However, during the process of conversion there are losses of energy, due to inefficiencies in the system of conversion.

The energy is not really lost but has been converted to a form that is not useable, eg, a vehicle losses much heat energy through its hot exhaust gas. The efficiency of any conversion system may be known by the following expression;

Output ÷ Input = efficiency

Example; Output 1 ÷ Input 2 = 0.5 efficiency.

A conversion system that can better a 50% efficiency rate is exceptional rather than the norm. Therefore, according to the thermodynamic theory of entropy, the unusable energy is dissipated; creating an increasing molecular disorder, which will eventually lead to the heat death of the universe; in that heat moves only from hot to cold, and eventually there will be temperature equilibrium throughout the universe.

The first and second laws of the thermodynamics are subject to much controversy *. With tongue in cheek we may say, ” There is some pressure on the matter”. For our purpose the situation can be summed up, by Michael Flanders and Donald Swann’s rendition of a little ditty;

You cant pass heat from a cooler to a hotter. Try it if you like, you’d far better notter, cause the cold in the cooler will get hotter as a ruler, cos the hotter bodies heat will pass to the cooler. Oh you cant pass heat from a cooler to a hotter. Try it if you like, you’d only look a fooler. Cold in the cooler will get hotter as a ruler, that is a physical law. Heat is work and work’s a curse and all the heat in the universe is gonna cool down because it cant increase, there’ll be no more work and perfect peace;

Really ? Yeah, that’s entropy man!

‘all because of the second law of thermodynamics’

At the Drop of Another hat’ E.M.I. Records 1964

*

The second law of thermodynamics contradicts the findings of cosmology and evolution. This of course presents a problem for Science which has not been properly addressed, and never more so in the field of medicine and the periodic table. 

“As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain, and as far as they are certain,
they do not refer to reality”.
Albert Einstein

Heat and Temperature 4.29
There is a tendency to talk of heat and temperature as though they were one and the same thing; there is however, a critical difference. If we refer back to the theory of matter, then the following statements may be put in context;

A. Temperature is a measure of the vibratory speed of an atom.

                                        B. Heat is the vibratory speed of an atom multiplied by the mass of atoms.

Therefore 2 litres of water at 25°C contains more heat than 1 litre of water at 25°C.

Heat Energy 4.30
Units of heat are measured in Joules; and when working on macroscopic quantities, it is usual to work in kilo-Joules per unit of mass ie kJ/kg.

Heat energy can be a difficult concept to understand; for unlike matter it cannot be seen or held, however, its effects can be felt.

For example, assume that we have 1 kg each, of Ethyl alcohol, olive oil and distilled water, at a temperature of 25°C.

To each one we add 5 k/J of heat energy, then from the initial starting temperature, the ethyl alcohol would register 27.04°C, a rise of just over 2°C. The olive oil would register 27.5°C and the water 26.19°C.

If we applied the same conditions to a block of copper, the temperature would register 37.56°C, a rise of 12.56°C. Quite clearly different substances vary greatly in their temperature reaction to heat energy. The reason is because of the difference in density or atomic mass of the different substances (see Periodic Table), therefore, it is not possible to use temperature as a measure of heat without first specifying the substance which is being heated.

Specific Heat Capacity 4.31
1 litre of water at 4°C weighs 1 kg and has a volume of 1 cubic decimetre (1000 cubic centimetre), 1dm³ of copper weighs 8.79kg.

Now although the volume is the same, there is a big difference in mass, therefore, the copper and water will require different amounts of heat energy to lift the temperature by 1°C.

Each substance has its own specific heat capacity which is measured in kJ/kg/°C which is the amount of heat energy needed per kilogram of substance to raise the temperature by 1°C.

The term specific heat capacity is a misnomer, because it implies that a substance will only hold a certain level of heat; whereas in fact, the S.H.C. differs with pressure and temperature, and by pouring heat energy into a substance, we can produce the following effects;

● An increase in temperature (per kJ/kg °C)

● Expansion of volume (size)

● A change in physical state (solid, liquid, vapour)

● A chemical change (burnt toast)

                                        ● A change in the electrical properties of the substance.

The specific heats of different substances were arrived at experimentally. In the terms of the old heat units, the specific heat of water was unity or 1.

The specific heat capacity of the other substances were then related to water, the quantity given was a ratio, and was not a heat unit.

Under the S.I. the quantities are heat units related to the mass, and not a ratio related to water.

Energy in whatever form costs money, therefore, unit operations whether laboratory or field scale, must be taken into the economic costings if any degree of accuracy is to be obtained. You must know the amount of heat required to bring a dehydrator, evaporator or distilling unit up to working temperature, and then the amount of heat required to carry out the process.

Specific heat capacities for solids will vary according to temperature. Specific heat capacities for gas and liquids will vary according to temperature and pressure. The values which are given in Table 4.31A, are average values which, for all practical purposes, may be taken as constants.

Density and Relative Density 4.32
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit of volume, e.g. kg/m³, kg/dm³, or g/cm³.

The density of water is greatest at 4°C. At that temperature, 1000 litres or kilograms has a volume of 1 cubic metre or 1000kg/m³. Therefore, it follows that 1 gram has a volume of 1 cubic centimetre at that temperature.

The specific heat values are expressed as kJ/kg, therefore, if you know the weight of a dehydrator or distillation unit then it is simple to calculate its S.H.C.

The relative density of a substance is a ratio of distilled water at 4°C under pressure of 1 atmosphere. The densities of selected substances are given with the S.H.C. values in Table 4.31A.

SHC and Densities. Table 4.31A

STP = Standard temperature and pressure. STP = 0°C at 101 kPa. (Freezing point at sea level)

The subject of pressure will be dealt with later in the text.

Heat Tranfer 4.33
In section 4.28, Michael Flanders and Donald Swann in their rendition of the 2^nd Law of Thermodynamics, inform us that, ‘you can pass heat from a cooler to a hotter’; in other words, heat always flows from a hot substance to a cooler substance. Heat will continue to slide down the temperature gradient between hot and cold until equilibrium or equal temperature exists between the two substances.

This phenomenon is very useful because we can move heat energy from one place to another by arranging a series of temperature slides. Heat can be transferred in three ways;

1. By Conduction. E.g. we can go to bed in a warm house and wake up to a cold house. The heat has diffused through the walls and dissipated into cold night air, there has been a temperature slide between the house, and the atmosphere. We use that principle when warm air is passed across cold herb.

2. By Convection. This method of heat transfer is achieved by using a gas or a liquid as a vehicle for the heat energy, e.g. a domestic fan heater draws air across an electrically heated element. Heat is transferred to the cool air, which becomes warm, and is then blown into the room. We use that principle when air is heated for dehydration purposes. The use of liquids for heat transfer finds many uses, for instance, water or steam radiators, or domestic refrigerator.

3. By Radiation. Unlike conducted or convected heat, radiated heat may pass through a vacuum. It does so as a wave motion which is similar to that of radio or light waves. Radiant heat obeys the same physical laws that govern light. That fact is the core principle of Helio-technology. That will be expanded when solar energy is discussed.

Thermometers and Temperature 4.34
A thermometer (thermo- meter) is an instrument that utilises the thermometric properties of expansion and contraction, to measure a temperature change to a substance. The most common type is one that uses the expansion and contraction of a liquid to measure the heat intensity of a substance.

Water is not suitable because it freezes at 0°C. The liquid chosen must have a lower freezing point than water, eg, alcohol and mercury (Hg).

There are 2 fixed points against which temperature scales may be calibrated, ie, the freezing and boiling points of water at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. (The subject of pressure will be covered later in the text) If the pressure on water is over 1 atmosphere, the boiling point will be raised and the freezing point lowered,. below 1 atmosphere, the boiling point is lowered and freezing point raised.

Temperature Scales 4.35
In the past, there were a variety of temperature scales in use in different parts of the world, most of which are now abandoned. There are now three international scales recognised by science and technology, they are;

1. The Celsius Scale, which was formerly called ‘Centigrade’. This is the scale that is used for most practical purposes, and the fixed points are determined at 1 standard atmosphere, i.e. 101.325 kPa. (Sea level).

The lower fixed point is the fusion or freezing point of water, i.e. 0°C. The higher fixed point is the boiling point (bp) of water, i.e. 100°C. The interval between the 2 points is divided into 100 divisions, each one representing 1°C.

2. The Thermodynamic or Kelvin Scale, This is the fundamental scale to which all temperatures are finally referred. The scale is not allied to any substance, and to avoid confusion the term ‘degree’ is not used, instead the term Kelvin is used, e.g. 373K = 100°C. To give a scale a numerical basis, the scale is compared to the ‘Triple Point of Water’ (tp). The triple point of water is the equilibrium point between ice, water and water vapour, i.e. 0°Celsius.

That point on the Kelvin scale is 273.15K or 273K for practical purposes. To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273, e.g. 100°C + 273 = 373K. To convert from Kelvin to Celsius, subtract 273 e.g. 373K – 273 = 100°C. The Thermodynamic or Kelvin scale postulates an absolute zero, or 0K, and because the Kelvin and Celsius use the same divisions, 0K = 273°C.

3. The International Practical Temperature Scale, or the IPTS was legally adopted to solve practical problems that were involved with calibration of industrial and scientific instruments that are used in the areas of cryogenics (very low temperatures), or in pyrogenic work such as may be involved with thermo-nuclear reactors or heat shields for space craft.

The scale is in °C, and for practical purposes can be considered identical with the Kelvin scale. There are various fixed points which, for our purpose are irrelevant, but to convey the idea, one is based on the fusion or melting point of gold, i.e. 1064.43°C, and another on the boiling point of oxygen, ie, -182.962°C.

Comparison of Temperature Scales Table 4.35A

Water	Kelvin	Celsius	Fahrenheit
Boiling point	373K	100°C	212°F
Standard point	293K	20°C	68°F
Triple point	273K	0°C	32°F
Absolute zero	0K	– 273°C	– 460°F

To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius; Subtract 32°F, multiply the answer by 5, then divide by 9 = °C

Example, 212°F – 32 = 180 x 5 = 900 ÷ 9 = 100°C.

Energy and Change of State 4.36
Figure 4.11A is a representation of 3 of the states of matter, ie, Solid, Liquid and Vapour; each particle represents a molecule. In the solid the molecules are tightly bonded by electro-chemical force. In the liquid state the bonds have been stretched and weakened, which allows for a certain degree of movement. The vaporous state shows that the molecules have broken free from the electro-chemical energy that bound them together.

In order to bring about a change of state in water molecules, sufficient force, or heat energy, must be applied to the body of water to weaken or break the electro-chemical bonds that bind the molecules together. The state of a substance depends partly on temperature and partly on pressure.

Sensible Heat 4.37
If we take a pan of cold water and place a thermometer in it, the temperature of the water may be seen from the scale; remember that, we are not measuring the amount of heat in the water, but the heat intensity of the water.

If we then place the pan of water on a heat source and observe the thermometer, it will become obvious that although we are pouring heat energy into the water, the temperature does not change.

However, as we continue to observe, after a period of time the temperature will start a steady climb, so that we can see the effect of the heat energy. Heat that brings about an observable change in the temperature is called sensible heat.

The time lag between the heat poured in, and the initial temperature rise will vary from substance to substance, i.e. the differing specific heat capacities, and also the rate at which the heat is poured in, and the starting temperature.

Heat and Change of State 4.38
The point at which a solid will change to a liquid or a liquid to a solid, e.g. the freezing or melting of a ice cube, is known as the temperature of melting or the temperature of fusion.

The point at which a liquid turns to vapour is the temperature at which the substance will boil and vaporise.

When a substance is undergoing a change of state the temperature will remain steady until the change of state is complete. (Refer to Section 4.12). In the past the heat that was being added or taken away from a substance without a change in temperature was called latent heat.

The amount of heat required to bring about fusion or vaporisation in any substance is different, so there was a latent heat of fusion and a latent heat of vaporisation.

Today latent heat is called ‘Enthalpy’, therefore, there is enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of evaporation of a substance.

For our purpose, we will take the terms of evaporation and vaporisation to be synonymous; but it must be borne in mind that water will evaporate at all temperatures above freezing. The relationship between sensible heat and enthalpy heat may be understood by studying the chart in Figure 4.38A.

Enthalpy. Temperature. Change of State Fig. 4.38A

The following values are for fresh water at 101 kPa (Sea level)

Specific enthalpy of fusion ( Ice ) ———— 335 kJ/kg

Specific heat of water ———————– 4.2 kJ/kg

Specific enthalpy, vapourisation of steam —- 2260 kJ/kg

The chart represents 1kg of ice through to vapourisation.

Explanation of the chart.

Point A to B = 335kJ of heat added with no rise in temperature.

Point B to C = Ice melting with no rise in temperature.

Point C to D = Water temperature rising by 1°C for every 4.2kJ/kg

Point D to E = 2260 kJ/kg of heat added without a rise in temperature to vapourise the water

C = Melting point. A. B. C = Latent or hidden heat

D = Boiling point. C. D. = Sensible heat (temperature rise)

E = Vapour point D. E. = Latent heat

Atmospheric Pressure 4.39
The concept of pressure is of importance in many areas of herbology, as it relates to unit operations. For example, pressure or lack of it, determines the fusion or vaporisation point of a substance; also we make use of the pressure set up by a fan to move air in the unit operation of dehydration.

Fish live in an ocean of water. Most people will understand water (hydrostatic) pressure, i.e. the deeper one descends, the greater the pressure on the body, with the ear drums being particularly sensitive.

Terrestrial creatures live at the bottom of an ocean of air and the pressure is considerable. Pressure may be defined as a force per unit area on an object, e.g. 1 atmosphere exerts a pressure of 1.03 kg/cm². The average adult has a surface area of 19,500 cm², i.e. the sum of the pressure on the body exceeds 19 tonnes, or the equivalent of a 10 metre depth of water.

Vapour Pressure 4.40
If we take a container of cold water and bring it to the boil, it will be seen that small bubbles begin to form on the inside of the container.

As we continue to pour heat energy into the water, the vapour bubbles become larger and more numerous. The water that surrounds a bubble starts to vaporise into the bubble, which expands, the expansion exerts a vapour pressure. Many text books generalise by stating that a liquid will boil when the vapour pressure is at equilibrium with the pressure upon its surface.

A discussion of the gas laws is inappropriate for this text, but if you think about it, a more accurate definition would be , that water will boil when the vapour pressure of the bubbles reaches equilibrium with the water, or hydrostatic pressure. That definition makes it easier to understand how water can evaporate from a free surface at all temperatures above freezing.

The Effect of Increased Pressure 4.41
If we take a sealed vessel of water and pump air into it, there will be an increase of air pressure on the surface of the water. That makes it more difficult for the water molecules to escape as vapour from the water surface, and will also increase the hydrostatic pressure.

Therefore, a greater amount of heat energy will be required to enable the vapour pressure to overcome the increased pressure upon it. Logically, the increase in heat energy will cause an increase in the temperature; therefore, the boiling point of a liquid will rise with an increase in pressure.

Refer again to Figure 4.38A and place a ruler along the ‘C’, ‘D’ line so that the ruler intersects the 160° temperature line. The line ‘D’, ‘E’ will then be at a higher point on the graph, i.e. the boiling and vapour points have been increased.

The Effect of Reduced Pressure 4.42
If we now take the same vessel of water and attach a vacuum pump to it and reduce the air pressure to a point below atmospheric, we will also reduce the hydrostatic pressure. The reduced atmospheric pressure enables water molecules to leave the water surface more readily, in other words the vapour pressure is higher than the overlying air pressure.

The reduced hydrostatic pressure will enable the water to boil at a temperature below 100° C. The point of equilibrium where the number of water molecules escaping balances the number of molecules condensing, is known as the vapour pressure of the liquid, or to be precise, ‘ the equilibrium vapour pressure’.

This phenomenon is used to advantage by the Herbologist. Herb metabolites are thermo labile, i.e. damaged by heat; but by operating on the body of the herb under reduced pressure the Herbologist is enabled to extract metabolites without damage.

Chapter 4 part 4

 

Library
Pharmageddon Herbal Block Index

 

 

 

Volatile Oils of Australia.
Part 2

Compiled and edited by Ivor Hughes.

21. Eucalyptus obliqua, I, Herit., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 204.
Variously called ” Stringybark,” ” Messmate” ” Black Box,” and ” Ironbark Box.” (For synonyms, see “Timbers.”)
The essential oil is reddish-yellow, of mild odour, and bitter taste. Sp. gr., 0.899; boiling point, 171° to 195°; it becomes turbid at 18°. (Wittstein and Mueller.)
Southern coast districts of New South Wales, but chiefly in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia.

22. Eucalyptus Odorata, Behr., (Syn. E: porosa, Miq.; E. cajuputea, IMiq.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 215.
Variously called ” Peppermint Box” and ” Red Gum.”
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs of twigs of this tree (comprising, perhaps, 500 lbs. of leaves) yielded 112 ½ ozs. of essential oil. Bosisto (Trans. R.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4), however, gives the following figures :— 100 lbs. of leaves from trees growing on elevated spots yielded 4 oz. 13 drs. of oil, of specific gravity 922, while the same quantity of leaves from trees growing on low, swampy lands, yielded only 5½ drs. of oil of specific gravity .899. It is pale-yellowish, with a greenish tinge, and an aromatic, somewhat camphoraceous smell. It boils between 157° and 199°.
South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales.

23. Eucalyptus oleosa, F.v.M., (Syn. E. socialis, F.v.M.; E. turbinata, F.v.M., et Behr.j; N.O., Myrtaceaj, B.Fl., iii., 248.
A ” Mallee.”
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs. of the foliage of this tree (of which perhaps half the weight consisted of branchlets) yielded 62½ oz. of oil (Mr. Bosisto’s figures are 20 oz. of oil from 100 lbs. of the green leaves and branchlets), of 911 specific gravity, at 70° F., boiling at 341° F., and of rather a pleasant mint-like and camphoraceous odour, and yellowish colour. (Later experiments give the specific gravity at .904.) These determinations were made by Dr. Gladstone. The rotatory power was determined for a column of liquid 10 inches long. (Watts Diet, of Chem.)
Western and South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

24. Eucalyptus Planchoniana, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, F.v.M., Fragm., xi.
The fresh leaves yield .06 per cent, of an essential oil, having a specific gravity of .915. (Staiger.) The odour of this oil is described as peculiar, allied to citronelle, but differing from it. It has been suggested as a soap-perfume.
Near Brisbane, and Northern New South Wales.

25. Eucalyptus populifolia, Hook., (Syn. E. populnea, F.v.M. ;and including E. largiflorens var. parviflora, Benth.; E. platyphylla, F.v.M.); N.O.Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 214.
Variously called ” Poplar Box,” ” Red Box,” “White Box,” ” Bimbil, or Bembil Box.” The essential oil obtained from the leaves closely resembles cajuput in odour, perhaps more so than any other Eucalyptus oil.
New South Wales, Queensland and Northern Australia.

26. Eucalyptus rostrata, Schlecht., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.Fl., iii., 240.
” Red Gum.” (For the numerous other vernacular names and botanical synonyms of this Eucalypt, see “Timbers.”)
The essential oil is pale-yellow to reddish-amber in colour ; it smells and tastes like that from E. odorata ; is of 0.918 specific gravity, and boils at 137° to 181° F. (Wittstein and Mueller.)Plants grown on high ground give an oil of a dark amber colour, possessing an agreeable aromatic flavour, and having the odour of caraways. The yield from 100 lbs. of the fresh gathered leaves was 1 oz. 6 drs. The plants grown on low marshy soil yielded an oil of a pale-yellow colour, in appearance and smell similar to that yielded by E. odorata, the quantity being 9½ drs. to 100 lbs. (Bosisto, Trans. U.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4.)
South Australia to Northern Queensland.

27. Eucalyptus Staigeriana, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, Bailey in Synop. Queensland Flora.
” Lemon-scented Ironbark.”
The leaves possess an odour very like the scented verbena (Lippia citriodora), and yield an oil similar to the verbena oil (from Andropogon citratus) of commerce. Mr. Staiger found the dried leaves to yield 2¾ to 3 per cent, (other figures give 129 oz. to 1 ton of dry leaves) of volatile oil of specific gravity .901. Later experiments fix the specific gravity at .871, while Messrs. Schimmel & Co., of Dresden, give the specific gravity 0.880, and boiling point from 170° to 230°. It is said that the yield of oil from this Eucalypt is only exceeded by one other species, viz., E. amygdalina, and the yield is only very slightly in favour of the latter. Compare Backhousia citriodora.
Queensland.

28. Eucalyptus uncinata, Turcz., (Syn. E. leptophylla, Miq.; E. oleosa, F.v.M. (partly) ; N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 216.
A ” Malice.” “Gunamalary” of the aboriginals of the Lake Hind-marsh Station (Victoria).
Baron Mueller found that 1000 lbs. of twigs of this tree (comprising, perhaps, 500 lbs. of foliage) yielded 69 ozs. of essential oil.
West and South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

29. Eucalyptus viminalis, Labill., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 239-275
” Manna Gum.” ” Grey Gum.” ” White Gum.” (For the other numerous vernacular names and botanical synonyms of this Eucalypt, see ” Timbers.”)
The essential oil is of a pale yellowish-green colour, of disagreeable, but not penetrating- smell; of 0.921 sp. gr.; it boils at 159° to 182°. (Wittstein and Mueller.) A tree grown at St. Kilda, Melbourne, yielded Mr. Bosisto half-an-ounce of oil per 100 lbs. of leaves. The sp. gr. of the essential oil of E. dealbata (viminalis) is given by Mr. Staiger at .871 at 72° F. Its odour is described as being allied to citronelle, though differing from it, and it is suggested as a soap-perfume. Messrs. Schimmel & Co. (Pharm. Journ., April, 1888) speak of the oil of E. dealbata as possessing, in common with those of E. Baileyana, E. microcorys, and E. maculata, var. citriodora, ” a magnificent, melissa-like odour, which, especially in the oil of E. dealbata, is manifest in a surprisingly fine and rich bouquet. It is thought they will prove to possess extraordinary practical value.”
Bosisto (Tram;. R.S., Victoria, vol. vi., 1861-4) states that the oil of E. fabrorum (viminalis) is transparent, reddish-yellow, milder in odour than that from E. globulus; in flavour, resembling caraways and smoke-essence combined, and distinctly bitter to the taste. Yield : 8ozs., from 100 lbs. of fresh leaves.
Tasmania, South Australia, through Victoria to New South Wales.

30. Melaleuca decussata, R.Br., (Syn. M. parviflora, Reichb.; M. oligantha, F.v.M.; M. tetragonia, Otto.); N.O., Myrtacex, B.FL, iii., 133.
The essential oil is of oily consistence and amber colour, sp. gr. 0.938; it boils at 185°-2O9°, and resembles the oil from M. Wilsonii. (Wittstein.) 100 lbs. of the leaves and branchlets yielded about 6oz. of essential oil. (Mueller.)
Victoria and South Australia.

31. Melaleuca ericifolia, Smith, (Syn. M. nodosa, Sieb. non Smith ; M. Gunniana, Schau; M. hediophila, F.v.M.); N.O. Myrtaceae, B.FL, iii., 159.
The essential oil is pale yellow, and has a taste and smell like cajuput oil; is thin, specific gravity 0.899 — 0.902, and boils at 149° — 184°. (Wittstein and Mueller.) 100 lbs. of the leaves and smaller branches yield 5 oz. of oil. With age, it improves greatly. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except Western Australia.

32. Melaleuca genistifolia, Smith, (Syn. M. lanceolata, Otto; M. bracteata, F.v.M. ; Metrosideros decora, Salisb.); N.O., Myrtaceae.
” Ridge Myrtle.” Called ” Ironwood” in Queensland.
The essential oil is pale greenish-yellow, and mild in odour and taste. Mr. Bosisto gives 1 oz. 2 drs. as the approximate yield of oil from 100 lbs. of leaves and branchlets.
New South Wales to Northern Australia.

33. Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linn., (Syn. M. Cajuputi, Roxb. M. minor, Smith ; M. viridiflora, Gaertn.; M. saligna Blume ; Metrosideros albida, Sieb.; M. coriacea, Salisb.) ; N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 142. M. Lencadendra in Muell Cens., p. 55.
” White Tea-tree.” ” Broad-leaved Tea-tree.” ” Swamp Tea-tree.” ” Paper-barked Tea-tree.” ” Atchoourgo” of the aboriginals of theMitchell River, North Queensland. ” Whitewood” of Northern Territory.
This is a tree which has several fairly well-defined varieties. The fresh leaves of the Australian variety yield -895 per cent, of a. slightly acid essential oil, of specific gravity 917. (Staiger.) Dr. Bancroft, (speaking of M. Leucadendron var. lancifolia), considers ” this oil to be more agreeable than that of cajuput oil, which it closely resembles.” He finds that small insects imprisoned in its vapour are intoxicated. He has found it of value as an antiseptic inhalation in phthisis, for which purpose he considers it more pleasant than Eucalyptus oil. A sample of Queensland oil, however, examined at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition by an expert, was described as having ” a distinctly disagreeable odour, not resembling cajuput, but reminding one of rotten fruit,” so that probably the variety yielding it is somewhat removed from the typical form yielding the cajuput oil of commerce. In Bentley and Trimen’s Medicinal Plants, 108, the name Melaleuca minor is retained as the species name for the cajuput oil plant; “as,! however, it appears that this is the form only from which the oil is obtained, we have maintained the specific name without intending thereby to express any opinion as to its distinctness from the common Australian ‘Tea-tree’ (M. Leucadendron.)”I have, however, given a few notes on cajuput oil, although 1 am a little uncertain as to whether the particular variety of Melalenca which produces it is actually indigenous in Australia. But, whether it is actually indigenous or not, the oils yielded by the various species of Melaleuca possess a greater or less family likeness, and as the oil of the present species has been most worked at, the notes will be useful as a guide.

Rumphius says that the leaves are gathered on a warm day and placed in a sack, where they become hot and damp. They are then macerated in water and left to ferment for a night, and afterwards submitted to distillation. Two sacks full of the leaves yield only about three fluid drachms of the oil. Lesson’s account is also given in Bentley and Trimen’s Medicinal Plants. This is probably a proper and convenient way of treating the leaves of many of our myrtaceous trees with the view of extracting the oil they contain.

“Cajuput, or cajuput oil, is much used in India as an external application for rheumatism. It is a powerful anti-spasmodic diffusible stimulant, and sudorific. It is coming more into use in European practice. It varies in colour from yellowish-green to bluish-green ; it is a transparent mobile fluid, with an agreeable camphoraceous odour, and bitter aromatic taste, sp. gr. 0.926, it remains liquid at 13°C.,and deviates the ray of polarized light to the left. (The author has noticed the oil of every shade of brown, but when exposed to the light it in a few days turns to a greenish colour.) The green tint of the oil may be due to copper*, a minute proportion of which metal is usually present in all that is imported. It may be made evident by agitating the oil with very dilute hydrochloric acid. To the acid, after it has been put into a platinum capsule, a little zinc should be added, when the copper will be immediately deposited on the platinum. The liquid may then be poured off, and the copper dissolved and tested.

When the oil is rectified, it is obtained colourless, but it readily becomes green if in contact for a short time with metallic copper. Guibourt has, however, proved by experiment, that the volatile oil obtained by the distillation of the leaves of several species of Melaleuca, Metrosideros and Eucalyptus, has naturally a fine green hue. It is not improbable that this hue is transient, and that the contamination with copper is intentional, in order to obtain a permanent green.” (Materia Medica of Western India, Dymock.) Oil of cajuput consists mainly of the dihydrate of a hydrocarbon, called Cajputene, isomeric with oil of turpentine. On submitting it to fractional distillation, dihydrate of cajputene, which constitutes about two-thirds of the crude oil, passes over between 175° and 178°; smaller fractions, perhaps products of decomposition, are obtained from 178° to 240°, and from 240° to 250° ; and at 250° only a small residue is left, consisting of carbonaceous matter mixed with metallic copper. On treating this residue with ether, a green solution is obtained, which, when evaporated, leaves a green resin, soluble in the portion which boils between 175° and 178°, and capable of restoring the original colour. (Walls’ Dict., i., 710.) For a full account of Cajputene, isocajputene, Paracajputene, and the salts of Cajputene, see p. 711-2, loc. Cit.
Western Australia, New South Wales and Northern Australia.

34. Melaleuca linariifolia, Smith, (Syn. Metrosideros hyssopifolia, Cav.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 140.
The essential oil is light-straw coloured, mobile, of rather pleasant cajuput-like odour; very agreeable taste, suggestive of mace, but afterwards mint-like; of 0.903 specific gravity, and boiling point 175° to 187°. (Jurors’ Report Exhib., 1862, chiefly from Bosisto’s experiments.) Mr. Bosisto obtained 28 ozs. from 100 lbs. of the fresh leaves.
New South Wales and Queensland.

35. Melaleuca Squarrosa, Smith, (Syn. M. myrtifolia, Vent.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., iii., 140.
The essential oil from this shrub is green, and of disagreeable taste. Yield, only 5 drs. from 100 lbs. of material. (Bosisto.)
South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales.

36. Melaleuca uncinata, R.Br., (Syn. M. hamata, F. and G. Sert., PI.; M. Drummondii, Schau.; M. semileres, Schau.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1. iii., 150.
Common “Tea-tree.” Called “Broom” in South Australia. ” Yaang-arra”ofthe aboriginals of Illawarra (New South Wales); “Dyurr” of those of Lake Hindmarsh Station (Victoria). This essential oil is green, and smells like that of M. ericifolia, with an admixture of peppermint. (Wittstein.)
South and Western Australia, Victoria and New South Wales, and Queensland.

37. Melaleuca Wilsonii, F.v.M.; N.O., Myrtaceae, 13.F1. iii., 134.
This essential oil somewhat resembles cajuput oil, and is of 0.925 specific gravity. The yield is 4 ozs. from 100 lbs. of green material; the oil is of a pale-yellow colour; in odour, slightly resembling that from M. ericifolia, but devoid of its sweetness. (Bosisto.)
Victoria and South Australia.

38. Mentha australis, R- Br., (Syn. Micromeria australis, Benth.); N.O., Labiatae, B.F1. v. 83.
” Native Peppermint.” ” Panaryle ” of the natives at the Coranderrk Station (Victoria). (Query: Is this an aboriginal attempt to pronounce the word ” Pennyroyal ?”) In taste and smell, this oil hardly differs from ordinary oil of peppermint, but it may be described as somewhat coarser than the best samples of that substance. (Report of Dublin Exh., 1865.) Mr. Bosisto obtained 3 ozs. of oil from 100 lbs. of this plant.
All the colonies except Western Australia.

39. Mentha gracilis, R.Br., (Syn. Micromeria. gracilis, Benth.); N.O., Labiataj, B.F1., v., 83.
The herb from which this oil is obtained contains a portion of its volatile oil in the stems, the total yield from 100 lbs. of the green plant being 3 oz. Its smell is like oil of peppermint, with a slight admixture of pennyroyal. The supply of oil from the leaves is tolerably copious, 100 lbs. of the fresh green shrub, inclusive of branchlets, furnishing 6½ ozs. of a pale-yellow, limpid oil, the odour of which is hardly distinguishable from that of oil of rue, though, perhaps, a little intense and penetrating. Its taste is very disagreeable and acrid, strongly resembling that of rue. The medicinal action of this oil is that of a diuretic and diaphoretic. (Report Dublin Exh., 1865.)
All the colonies except Western Australia and Queensland.

40. Mentha grandiflora, Benth., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.F1., v. 82.
This mint oil has a fiery, bitter, and very unpleasant nauseous taste, together with a characteristic after-taste. It could not be used as a substitute for common peppermint, except for medical purposes. Its specific gravity is .924, and its yield 5 oz. from 100 lbs. of the fresh herb. (Report of Dublin Exhibition, 1865.)
New South Wales and Queensland.

41. Mentha laxiflora, Benth., N.O., Labiaue, B.Fl., v. 82.
This plant yields, on distillation, a pleasant oil, similar to that from peppermint.
Victoria and New South Wales.

42. Nesodaphne obtusifolia, Benth., (Syn. Beilschmiedia obtusifolia, Benth., et Hook.; Cryptocarya obtusifolia, F.v.M.); N.O., Laurinese, B.Fl., v. 299. B. obtusifolia in Muell. Cens., p. 3.
“Queensland Sassafras.”
One ton of the dry bark yields 770 oz. of essential oil (Staiger), = 2.15 per cent. The specific gravity is .978 at 72°F.
New South Wales and Queensland.

43. Pittosporum Undulatum, Vent., N.O. Pittosporeae, B.Fl..
” Native Laurel.” ” Mock Orange.” ” Wallundun-deyren ” of the aborigines.
The oil obtained from the flowers by distillation is limpid, colourless, lighter than water, of an exceedingly agreeable jasmine-like odour; the taste disagreeably hot and bitter, reminding one slightly of turpentine and rue. (Bailey.) 100 lbs. of flowers gave, on distillation, 2 oz. of essential oil (Mueller). Iodine, when brought in contact with it, gives rise to an explosion. This is true of many other oils.
Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland.

44. Polypodium phymatodes, Linn., (Syn. Pleopeltis phymalodes, T. Moore); N.O., Filices, B.F1., vii., 769.
This plant yields an aromatic oil, said to be used in the South Sea Islands for perfuming cocoa-nut oil (Woolls.) See Angiopteris evecta.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

45. Prostanthera lasianthos, Labill. N.O. Labiatae, B.Fl., v., 93.
Called “Dogwood” in Victoria. ” Coranderrk; ” the aboriginal station of that name is called after this plant. A greenish-yellow oil, limpid, and of mint-like odour and taste, and specific gravity 0.912. The yield from 100lbs. of fresh leaves is 2 oz. 4 ¼ drachms. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies.

46. Prostanthera rotundifolia, R.Br., (Syn. P. retusa, R.Br.; P. cotinifolia, A. Cunn.); N.O., Labiatse, B.Fl., v., 96.
This essential oil is of darker colour, and of sp. gr. 0.941, but otherwise resembling the oil from P. lasianthos. (Report of Exh., 1862.) The yield from 100 lbs. of leaves is 12 ozs. of oil. These oils are carminative. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except Queensland and Western Australia.

47. Zieria Smithii, Andr., (Syn. Z. lanceolata, R.Br.; Boronia arborescens, F.v.M.); N.O., Rutaceae, B.Fl., i., 306.
Colonial names are ” Sandfly Bush ” and ” Turmeric.” It is called ” Stinkwood ” in Tasmania. The essential oil is distilled from the leaves. It is pale yellow, of the taste and odour of rue, and of 0.950 specific gravity. (Report Exhib., 1862.) 100 lbs. of the green material produce 6 ½ ozs. of oil. (Bosisto.)
All the colonies except South and Western Australia.

PERFUMES. (SEE ALSO “ESSENTIAL OILS.”)
ALTHOUGH many Australian plants (notably a few of the wattles) have sweet-scented flowers, the author is not aware of any serious attempt having yet been made in the colonies to utilize their perfumes. Several of the essential oils, e.g., Backhousia citriodora, Eucalyptus maculata, var. citriodora and E. Staigeriana, page 254 et seq., obtained from the leaves of plants are really perfumes, and their chief use is in scenting soaps, and other preparations. But the quantity obtained is but small, and the plants used are wild. The advice to landowners to try the planting of perfume plants has been frequently given, but it does not appear to promise a heavy profit immediately, and so the industry is neglected. Many parts of littoral Australia are very gardens of flowers, and for a comfortable selector to establish the minor industry of flower-farming and storage of their perfumes, there would be but little outlay; the time required would chiefly be odd moments, while the produce would be a valuable commodity. But, however much we may regret it, we must acknowledge that there is too little enterprise amongst those of us engaged in tilling the soil.

The following is interesting, being from the pen of an authority on perfumery, and one who had travelled in Australia, and who had facilities for learning about Australia not possessed by many dwellers in Europe :—

“The commercial value of flowers is of no mean importance to the wealth of nations. But, vast as is the consumption of perfumes by the people under the rule of the British Empire, little has been done in England, either at home or in her tropical colonies, towards the establishment of flower-farms, or the production of the raw odorous substances in demand by the manufacturing perfumers of Britain ; consequently, nearly the whole are the produce of foreign countries. ” The climate of some of the British colonies especially fits them for the production of odours from flowers that require elevated temperature to bring them to perfection.

” But for the lamented death of Mr. Charles Piesse, Colonial Secretary for Western Australia, flower-farms would doubtless have been established in that colony long ere the publication of this work (1862). Though thus personally frustrated in adapting a new and useful description of labour to British enterprise, I am no less sanguine of the final results in other hands.” (Piesse, The Art of Perfumery.) The few species given below do not profess to be a complete list of Australian perfume plants; the list may, however, be suggestive.

Acacia Conferta, A Cunn., N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 343.
The flowers of this tree possess a remarkable perfume which Dr. Woolls thinks might be utilized commercially. The following species—Acacia acuminata, Benth., A. doratoxylon, A. Cutm., A. harpophylla, F.v.M., A. pendula, A. Cunn., amongst others, yield scented wood, and, therefore, may rank amongst perfumes. (See “Timbers.”)
New South Wales and Queensland.

2. Acacia farnesiana, Willd.,(Syn.A.lenticillata,F.v M.); N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 419.
” Dead Finish ” is the absurd name given to the wood. The flowers yield a delightful perfume, and for that quality are much cultivated in the South of France. The cultivation of this plant is particularly worthy the attention of settlers in Australia as an auxiliary industry. In Italy and France its sweet-scented flowers are mixed with melted fat or olive oil, which becomes impregnated with their odour, and constitutes the line pomade called ” Cassie.”
Interior of South Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and Northern Australia.

3. Acacia pycnantha, Benth., (Syn. A, petiolaris, Lehm; A. falcinella, Meissn.); N.O., Leguminosae, B.F1., ii., 365.
” Golden Wattle.” ” Green Wattle.” ” Broad-leaved Wattle.”
An extract of the flowers of this Wattle was shown as a perfume at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886. A score of other species of Acacia, e.g., A. suaveolens, might be selected as worthy of culture as perfume plants. ” Mutton fat being cheap, and the Wattle plentiful, a profitable trade may be anticipated in curing the flowers, &c.” (Piesse, Art of Perfumery?)
South Australia, Victoria and New South Wales.

4. Andropogon Schoenanthus, Linn., (Syn. A. Martini, Roxb.; A. cilratum, DC.; A. Nardus, Linn.; Cymbopogon schoenanthus, Spreng.); N.O., Gramineae, B.FI., vii., 534.
A strong-growing grass, more in repute as a perfume than a fodder. Other species of Andropogon are more or less aromatic.
Queensland.

5. Anisomeles salvifolia, R.Br., N.O., Labiate, B.FI., v. 89.
Mr. P. A. O’Shanesy points out that this plant may be made to yield a very delicate perfume. It is a very variable species.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

6. Backhousia Citriodora, F.v.M., N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FI., iii.,270.
” Scrub Myrtle.” ” Native Myrtle.”
The foliage of this tree is deliciously lemon-scented, like the Scented Verbena (Lippia citriodora). The essential oil from the leaves has been tested for scenting soaps, and has answered the purpose well. The dried leaves, put in little bags (such as are employed for holding lavender flowers) give, for a long time, a very pleasant odour to the contents of linen-presses, &c.
Queensland.

7. Eucalyptus maculata, Hook, var. citriodora, (Syn. E. citriodora, Hook, f.); N.O., Myrtaceae, B.FI., iii., 257.
” Citron, or Lemon-scented Gum.” The aboriginal name is ” Urara.”
The leaves emit a delightful odour of citron, especially when rubbed. They should be used to perfume and protect clothes-presses. The Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods states they are certainly a specific against cockroaches and ” silver-fish” insects, which are great domestic pests.
Queensland.

8. Guettarda speciosa, Linn., N.O., Rubiaceae, B.FI., iii., 419.
The flowers of this tree are exquisitely fragrant. They come out in the evening, and have all dropped on the ground by morning. The natives in Travancore distil an odoriferous water from the corollas, which is very like rose-water. In order to procure it they spread a very thin muslin cloth over the tree in the evening, taking care that it comes well in contact with the flowers as much as possible. During the heavy dew at night the cloth becomes saturated, and imbibes the extract from the flowers. It is then wrung out in the morning. The extract is sold in the bazaars.
Queensland and Northern Australia.

9. Hierodoa spp, (See ” Grasses,”)
These possess a powerful odour of ” Coumarin.”

10. Humea elegans, Smith, (Syn. Calomeria amanthoides, Vent J; N.O., Compositae, B.FI. iii., 589.
The whole plant on being bruised emits a delightful scent, so overpowering as sometimes to produce headache. Dr. George Bennett (Gatherings of a Naturalist) is of opinion that a very valuable perfume might be obtained from it.
Victoria and New South Wales.

11. Murraya exotica, Linn., (Syn., M. paniculata, Jack) ; N.O., Rutaceae, B.FI. i., 369.
“China Box.”
This bush, which is also a native of India and China, has such delightfully fragrant flowers that it might be worth while to cultivate it as a perfume plant.
Queensland.

12. Pandanus odoratissimus, Linn. (Syn., P. spiralis, R.Br.); N.O., Pandaneae, B.F1., vii., 148.
” Screw Pine.” The natives of India are fond of the scent of this flower, which they place amongst their clothes. The male flowers are exceedingly fragrant, and are much appreciated by the Burmese. The Hindus use them in certain of their religious ceremonies. (Cyclop of India.)
Northern Australia.

13. Pittosporum undulatum, Vent., N.O., Pittosporeae, B.F1.
” Native Laurel.” ” Mock Orange.” ” Bart-bart ” of the aboriginals of the Karnathun tribe, Lake Tyers (Victoria).
This tree is well worth cultivating on a commercial scale for the sake of the sweet perfume of its flowers.
All the colonies except South and Western Australia.

14. Pterigeron liatroides, Benth., (Syn. Pluchea ligulata, F.v.M.; Streptoglossa Steetzii, F.v.M. ; Erigeron liatroides, Turcz.); N.O., Composite, B.FI., iii., 532.
This plant yields a delicious perfume, and therefore may be deemed worthy of cultivation by the horticulturist or flower-farmer, Western and South Australia, and New South Wales.

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The Enigma of Dr. Edward Bach and the
Flower Remedies
-::-:-::-
A Spagyric View
by
Ivor Hughes

The Man and His Work.
Dr. Edward Bach was born on the 24th of September 1886. In the suburb of Moseley, Birmingham, England. He died peacefully on the evening of November 27th, 1936. He was only 50 years old. One presumes that his mission stood completed.

He studied medicine at Birmingham University and completed his training at University College Hospital in London, where he subsequently obtained his degree in medicine. He became interested in immunology and worked as Assistant Bacteriologist at London’s University College Hospital. His orthodox medical career was as varied as it was successful. He also worked as a General Practitioner, maintaining a practice in Harley Street London. Whilst working as a bacteriologist and pathologist he helped in the development of various vaccines. He also studied Homeopathy, and produced a set of Homeopathic nosodes, which carry his name. However his monument is the gift of the ‘Flower  Remedies’. A natural modality that is derived from Spagyric and Homeopathic practices. They work on emotional states by anti-doting them ‘Similia Similibus Curantur’. Modern Psychiatric (Crude and Barbaric) treatment uses brain chemicals for the same purpose.

Much of what we know of Edward Bach the man, or that which has passed into folklore, has been passed on from a small circle of people, who surrounded him whilst he worked on the remedies. I am asked to accept that some few days before his death, he burnt most of his working papers. Therefore any analysis of his work and it’s intentions must necessarily be based on speculation. Informed speculation is the basis of circumstantial evidence.

Circumstantial Profile.
Edward Bach was born during, and lived through the Victorian and Edwardian Era. Homeopathy still fresh from it’s stunning success during the London Cholera epidemic of the mid 1850’s, stood on an equal footing before the law with that of the orthodox school of medicine. It was common to find doctors of the orthodox school, training in, and practicing Homeopathy. In fact most of the distinguished doctors of that era did.

The nature of orthodox training was quite authoritarian. You know the method, “Memorise those 200 bones during your lunch hour, your anatomy test is after lunch”. We know nothing of Dr. Bach’s emotional entanglement., however his attitude towards women is testified by his choice of personal assistant in Nora Weeks. That he was a polymath there is no doubt. The boundaries that orthodox medical training had placed around him, were courageously pushed back. This at a time when the merest whiff of ‘Vitalism’ would earn one a good boiling in scientific oil.

Perhaps this is an explanation for his move to the ruralities? Dr. Bach seemed to have had a talent for putting his foot in it. A man of principle! We may well understand that his written initial work along Spagyric lines, i.e.  The 12 Healers, would have not sat well in polite, orthodox, Christian society. Such matters were considered to be the work of the Devil, and were anathematised by the religious hardliners.

In Dr. Bach’s day, the corner Chemist shop was a familiar sight in Britain. The Pharmacist was also trained in the art of Homeopathic Pharmacy. In addition to the chemicals, a number of plant drugs were also official. His task was to fill the doctors prescription. This according to the Pharmacopoeia standards. Informed of course by the Pharmaceutical Society. In other words they held the legal monopoly. They stocked the recommended patent medicines but they would not stock anything that they thought was snake oil. Bach chose to take his remedies to a Homeopathic Pharmacy. I believe he did so for pragmatic reasons. He was Homeopathic Physician and that he was selling homeopathic potencies of his remedies, more on this later.

Hints of Dr Bach’s Cosmology.
In 1931 the first edition of ‘Heal Thyself”, the seminal work of the flower remedy school, was published. In it we may see his Spiritual outreach and the framework within which the remedies were developed. In Edward Bach’s own words:

“One of the exceptions to materialistic methods in modern science is that of the great Hahnemann, the founder of Homeopathy, who with his realisation of the beneficent love of the Creator and of the divinity which resides within man, by studying the mental attitude of his patients toward life, environment and their respective  diseases, sought to find in the herbs of the field and in the realms of nature the remedy which would not only heal their bodies but would at the same time uplift their mental outlook.”**

“May his science be extended and developed by those true physicians who have the love of humanity at heart”**. Five hundred years before Christ some physicians of ancient India, working under the influence of the Lord Buddha, advanced the art of healing to so perfect a state that  they were able to abolish surgery, although the surgery of their time was as efficient, or more so, than that of the present day.”

“Such men as Hippocrates with his mighty ideals of healing, Paracelsus with his certainty of the divinity of man, and Hahnemann realised that disease originated in a plane above the physical-all these knew much of the real nature and remedy of suffering.**

“What untold misery would have been spared during the last twenty or twenty-five centuries had the teaching,  of these great masters of the art been followed.** but, as in other things, materialism has appealed too strongly to the Western world, and for so long a time, that the voices of the practical obstructors have risen above the advice of those who knew the truth.”

** My emphasis. I feel that the first paragraph was almost a mirror image of Bach himself. Indeed Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (1755-1843) was Dr. Edward Bach’s model. Who could have wished for a more apt pupil?

His original work ‘The 12 Healers’ was based upon the 12 Astrological types. In a later edition of the book of the same title he introduced a further 26 remedies to the Materia Medica. Interestingly enough the emotional states to be treated were classified under 7 headings. Now it is interesting to speculate, that he went about his search in one of two ways. Firstly by the classical method of a healthy prover. Or secondly, that he himself suffered from those mental and emotional storms and strode the countryside seeking relief. There are 7 inner planets and 7 days in a week. Thus we may see that much of his earlier writing is replete in Hermetic teaching and symbolism.

Dr. Bach’s Approach.
We are informed that Edward Bach used the Classical Homeopathic approach to the proving’s, and like all genuine physicians he first tried the substances on himself. Like cures like, therefore one presumes that the substances which he tested, produced in him the malaise which it was intended to antidote. Or that it antidoted the malaise. He then reduced the actual amount of the active substance by dilution. Up to now this sounds like homeopathy. He was a Homeopathic Physician. Dr.Hahnemann had already signposted the way. It led to Paracelsus. There we find the root of Homeopathy. There we find the moon distilled drop that mingles with the dew drops on plants. And at dawn a little natural lense pointed at the Sun. The lense was a magnifying lense. The heat generated by the early morning sun through the lense, acts like a hot poultice, and draws to the surface of the petal and then absorbs its medicinal potential. This was living essence direct from the flower. This was an Anabolic process. The effect of the Sun on an anabolic process is stimulant rather than destructive.

The early Spagyric practitioners would draw muslin cloths across stands of wild plants of the same specie, an hours or so past dawn. The collected liquid is then potentised by rotation through the influences of sun and moon for a period of 7 days. It was enclosed in a sealed opaque container to protect it from the rays of the sun., this was left outdoors. The heating effect of the sun , sets up a flux of evaporation and condensation. Thus we have a rhythmic natural rotation, which slows to almost  imperceptible during the hours of night.

We are informed that Bach used an eye dropper to collect the sun ripened dew drops. This because he had no need of the quantities of dew that were needed before the time of Hahnemannn. For example 5 ml (Imperial 84.5 minims) added to 50 ml of dilutent would produce the first 55 ml of a 1:10 Homeopathic Mother Tincture.

If we proceed on the basis of Hahnemanns Centesimal Scale (C) 1 ml of mother tincture is added to 100 mil of the diluting medium and sucussed. That is 1 C or 2x on the Hering scale. Then 1 ml of the 1 C is added to another 100 ml of dilutent. Each 1 ml of potency becomes 100 ml of the next potency. Therefore the original 55 ml of mother tincture increases by 100 increments at each level of potency. On a good day a 5 ml eye dropper represents about 30 minutes work. By hand a 30 C (60x) potency will take circa 3 hours to produce. However as a homeopathic physician he would have been more than familiar with the variety of mechanical sucussion apparatus that was available at that time. So it will be well understood, that neither quantity of the original substance, or the labour involved in potentising presented any kind of problem.

The ‘Nelsons’ Connection.
Let Nelsons introduce themselves, the following is taken from their website http://www.nelsons.co.uk/

Background
In 1860, a young pharmacist and student of Samuel Hahnemann, Ernst Louis Ambrecht, came to London and opened a homeopathic pharmacy in Ryder Street where he could put into practice the principles learned from his teacher. The pharmacy soon outgrew its original premises and in 1890 it was moved to Duke Street where it remains today supplying homeopathic medicines to customers all over the world. Ernst’s son Nelson, who changed the name of the company to A. Nelson and Co succeeded him. As its reputation has grown so has the demand for its products. As Europe’s oldest and the UK’s largest manufacturer of homeopathic medicines, Nelsons now produces the most comprehensive range in Britain from its specialised manufacturing laboratories in Wimbledon.

Quality
Nelsons has two laboratories licensed by the Medicines Control Agency (MCA), where all of its remedies are produced. Top quality plant materials are sourced from around the world. The ingredients are all thoroughly tested under strict quality controls.

Nelsons is distinguished as the oldest Homeopathic Pharmacy in Europe with over 140 years of knowledge relating to Dr. Hahnemanns system of medicine in all of its aspects.

Enter Dr. Bach
I would imagine that Edward Bach was well received at Nelsons. With him he would have taken a sample of his products. His provings, and very importantly, his original clinical case notes. Without  which Nelsons would not have entertained Dr. Bach. The Bach Centre copy has disappeared, perhaps Nelsons still have the case files in their archives? Perhaps they were selling Dr. Bach’s new homeopathic remedies? Again a search of the company archives would settle the question.

The Enigma.
The names of ‘Hippocrates, Paracelsus and Hahnemann, roll from Bach’s pen like a eulogy. He plainly states that they ‘knew the truth‘ Dr. Bach was a trained Homeopathic Physician. He thought as a Hermetic Scientist he was a ‘Vitalist’. He of all people, would have understood the importance of the strict procedural method of producing a remedy. Without which, reproduction of a remedy is not possible, for very common sense reasons, which will be explained.

We are given to understand that the Dr. Bach method for producing these remedies is of two orders. (1) The Sun Method (2) The Boiling Method. Let us look at both methodologies. Reproduced below is 2 communications from ‘Nelsons USA’ The American distributors of the ‘Bach Flower Remedies’.

From Nelson USA
17th of October 2002

Dear Ivor Hughes,
My apologies for the delay in responding to your email. I was waiting on the answer from our mother company in England since I myself was not sure on the ratio. They responded; for the sun method a 500 ml bowl is filled with spring water and covered with flowers The boil method, a stainless steel saucepan is filled with the flowering twigs or specified part of the plant, covered with water.
The exact ratio of plant to water in each case is not specified in Dr. Bach’s writing, although a ratio of 50:1 for sun method and 10:1 for the boil method was given by the Bach Center
I hope this answers your question. If you need to talk to me please call
800-319-9151

Kind regards
Denise M. Eaton
Retail Training Coordinator
[email protected]

This was a follow up on the above email.

There are two methods of preparing the Mother Tinctures for the Bach Flower Essences ©
The Sun Method: Dr. Bach used this method to make 20 of the Essences ©, most of which are delicate blooms in the height of summer.

The Boiling Method: Dr. Bach used this method to prepare the remaining 18 Essences ©, from trees and bushes and plants, most of which flower in the early part of the year

A three step process – preparing the Bach Flower Essences ©.

Step One – Mother tinctures are prepared from plant material and natural spring water using either the sun or boiling method as defined by Dr. Bach’s instructions.

Step Two – The mother tincture is made up of the energized spring water (Step one) mixed with an equal quantity of 40% brandy. The brandy acts purely as a preservative for the water.

Step Three – To make the stock bottle, two drops of mother tincture are added to 30 ml of 27% brandy, which is also known as ‘grape alcohol’.

Bach flower Essences © are produced exactly according to the methods set out by Dr. Edward Bach. The Essences © are energized by the sun or boiling method. No further potentisation is carried out.

My overall reaction on reading this was one of disbelief. Is this it? The sum total of Dr. Edward Bach’s lifetime work? Dr. Bach’s working papers have disappeared, therefore, we have no means of verifying if the above was his intention or not. Unless of course Nelson’s still have the original formula monographs?

My most overwhelming impression was that  the instructions for steps 1, 2 and 3 have been very carefully worded from a legal angle. The words raise some question marks.

The word ‘Essence’ as applied in pharmacy can apply either to an essential oil, or if the term is used in the USA, to a spirituous suspension of the oil. That being the case, the 18 ‘Decoctions’ produced by the boiling method can hardly be designated as essences, or can they? I am not sure that the Sun ‘infusions’ would be accepted as an essence either.

The first email states, that the Bach Centre, had informed Nelsons USA, that the ratio of plants to water for the Sun method is 50:1 and for the boiling method 10:1.Now that means 50 parts or 10 parts respectively to 1 part of water. That is a physical impossibility. So are we to assume that the Bach Centre do not know what they are doing, or have thy made a mistake?  I think what the Bach Flower Centre meant, 1:50 for the sun method and 1:10 for the boiling method. If my supposition is correct, we are then left with a large discrepancy of ingredient in solvent, between the Sun and the Boiling method, this by w/v. In terms of the 38 remediesthis is a nonsense which cannot be explained away in any kind of satisfactory manner. The ratio of dilutions that follow the procedure clearly demonstrates that this is also nonsense. Therefore I must now proceed on the basis, that both methods are prepared to the standard vibrational medicine mother tincture of 1:10.

It will also be seen, from the preparation instructions from the Bach Centre,  that they use a 500 ml bowl. (1 pint approximates 568 ml) this mean 50 grams of fresh petals per 500 ml of water. The drying ratio of flower petals is a ratio of 10:1 theoretically the 50 grams of petals contain 45 ml of water. However this is not a fixed quantity but will vary according to the weather conditions such as wet and gorged with water or parched from lack of rain. Therefore the integrity of the menstruum which in this case is water is called into question. Further information on menstruum integrity may be obtained from my articles on pharmacy on the main page of the website .

The integrity of the menstruum is further compromised by the addition of an equal amount of 40% by volume Brandy. This will produce a 20% by volume alcoholic menstruum. This means that the original 1:50 mother tincture is now 1:100. Then unbelievably we are further informed that a stock bottle is comprised of 2 drops of the 1:100 tincture which are added to 30 ml of 27% Brandy. So far the menstruum has been changed 3 times. If there are any soluble constituents in a solution and one changes the composition of the solution precipitation will occur. On that basis of Vibrational Medicine, as in homeopathy, we could assume that there is some kind of magnetic precipitation.

Vibrational or Energy Medicines are potentised in a menstruum or a solid,  which retains the molecular memory or information of the original substance that it contained. If one then changes the menstruum the information is also altered. . On that same basis it may be seen that the mix and match system advocated e.g., The Rescue Remedy would also produce a confused energy field which would antidote the remedy. Nelsons then further inform us as follows;

Rescue Remedy
“Dr. Bach created an emergency combination containing five flower remedies – Impatiens, Star of Bethlehem, Cherry Plum, Rock Rose and Clematis.

Rescue Remedy combines these five Bach Flower Remedies and can be used to help you cope with immediate everyday situations such as going to the dentist, interviews, making a complaint or wedding day nerves. It can also help in times of crisis or trauma such as bereavement, a relationship breakdown or redundancy.”

I can find no other reference that Dr. Bach was responsible for the creation of the ‘Rescue Remedy’ Neither do I believe that as a physician, he would have clamed such a wide ranging action. ‘Shot Gun Remedies’ have a very poor reputation. It is Spagyric and Classical Homeopathic insistence on a single remedy that if a complex of symptoms are present, that the remedies are given individually with a suitable interval between each. Approaching the malaise rather like peeling and onion.

If Bach were responsible, then he is also guilty of committing every beginners mistake, that of combining 2 or more herbs of the same therapeutic class. Yet he was a trained physician. To even think that he would advocate that his precious remedies be treated as though they were a box of mixed chocolates, is ludicrous in the extreme.

So What is Wrong?
Based on the matters already placed before you, I believe that Dr. Bach was producing Spagyric remedies incorporating Dr. Hahnemanns methodology.

Bach would have been fully aware that his dropper method of collecting dew from living flowers was far superior to producing a sun infusion of maimed and dying flower petals. Yet we are given stories of crystal bowls, flower petals, and pure spring water being gently potentised by the sun.

There is no pure natural water anywhere on the planet. The planet is contaminated from pole to pole with hormone and endocrine disrupters. The composition of spring water also depends on the strata through which it has risen so its composition will vary from location to location. Its chemical variability will affect the composition of the substance it contains. That is the ‘why’ of using distilled water. Distilled water may be energised by the correct rotation procedures.

Metabolism is of two orders Anabolism or the building up of complex structures, and Catabolism which is the breaking down of complex structures. Tissue, either plant or human, when it is dying, is in the catabolic state, There is some polygraph evidence that plants react to pain. So the type of vibration being absorbed into the spring water is not of health, but the sounds of dying. This in an order of vibrations of many magnitudes above that of the standard tincture or extract.

Direct sunlight accelerates the catabolic process that is why medicinals are stored in amber bottles. However when the mother substance is collected by a dropper from the living flower, it is an Anabolic process. This is common sense.

Irrespective of ones personal concept of what constitutes vibrational medicine, one may not escape the physical constraints placed upon the matrix or menstruum that holds that energy. The physical state of the solvent has an effect for good ordetriment upon the substance which is dissolved in it. If you change the menstruum one changes the nature of the remedy, This is common sense . Dr. Bach would have been fully aware of those constraints. Therefore it does not make sense, that he would fly in the face of his experience, and abruptly change the physical nature of the solvent, by diluting it half and half with 40% brandy. That is also the reverse of the procedures followed by Dr. Hahnemann. Bach quite clearly states that Hahnemann ‘knew the truth’ and then further, “May his science be extended and developed by those true physicians who have the love of humanity at heart”

I am quite sure that Dr. Edward Bach would not consider the methodology described by The Bach Centre, or Nelsons, to be a development of Dr. Hahnemanns work. Quite the opposite in fact.

The so called boiling method is called a ‘Decoction’ There are definite rules that need to be followed for such preparations. Decoctions are still official in many Pharmacopoeias. Once again the methodology is based on the physical constraints of the plant part being treated. Decoctions are water extracts of barks and woods and seeds. They are not vibrational Medicine.

I dread to think, what such a process would inflict on such a delicate structure as spring blossom. After all we are not boiling potatoes. We are supposedly preparing a potentised  energy medicine.

The Spagyric Method of Flower Remedies.
Each drop of dew that is harvested by the dropper method would contain ethereal traces of essential oils alcohols and esters. Accordingly the Menstruum should be a minimum of 90% alcohol by volume.

The alcohol must be prepared from the green parts of the plant from which the flowers were taken. This requires some forethought for spring blossom, because the alcohol must be prepared from the leaves of the plant in early summer. Therefore it must be prepared in the previous season.

In this way the molecularintegrity of plant memory is maintained throughout the process. 1 ml of the collected flower dew is added to 10 ml of the alcohol. That is the 1:10 mother tincture. This is the mother tincture  and may be prepared in any units of ten e.g. 1 litre of dew in 10 litres of alcohol. The spagyric mother tincture is potentisedby  the Hahnemann method of sucussion to the 3 C potency, that means that the original 1 ml will produce manylitres.

In Conclusion
There are many people for whom the Bach Flower Essences just do not work. On the other hand there are many for whom they do. The short answer to that is ‘Placebo’.

I feel that Dr. Bach’s work has been ideologically sanitised and corrupted. I note from the Bach Centre FAQ’s that they are of low church and that a Devil’s Advocate will not deter them from the simplicity of their methods. 

I for one, do not believe that the methods described, are those that Dr. Bach used. This for all of the reasons that I have stated. I also feel that ‘Nelsons Homeopathic Pharmacy” owe everyone that uses those products an explanation. Not from the retail training coordinator, but rather from the Pharmaceutical Head of Nelsons Laboratory. I would be most interested to hear how he/she feels that a ‘Decoction’which has been diluted many  times, and this without potentisation, can have such a far ranging effect upon an individuals emotional state. Perhaps that pharmacist knows something that no one else is privy to?

Ivor Hughes
Auckland NZ Dec 2002  

Addendum July 13th 2008
Regarding the potentising of the Homeopathic 1:10 Mother tincture by the succussionmethod to ensure information transfer  .. that the process is magnetic innature appears to be the front runner. What I did not mention was that becauseof the delicacy of these floral spirits suspended in a menstruum which whichthey have an affinity .. the Spagyric method of potentisation is by gentlerotation under Sun and Moon .. the Earth is represented by the essence of theplant. The knack here is that each potency is achieved by a step of 7 .. so themother tincture needs to be made to a ratio of 1:7 .. the next step is the firstpotency that comprises of a 7 day rotation under sun and moon .. to increase itspotency .. this then proceeds in increments of 7 days of rotation .. 14, 21, 28up to a maximum of 42 days which is assumed to be the the philosophic month ..what this means is that we can have small quantities  of the 28, 35, and 42potencies available for when required plus the energy levels to meet the mostprevalent conditions met by the therapist .. the water based essences althougheffacious deteriorate quite rapidly  

                 

Library

 

 

EQUIVALENT B.P. (1932) FORMULA
Compiled and Edited by Ivor Hughes.

 

N.B. None plant drugs have been omitted.

THE following equivalent formulae have been prepared in order to be a convenience to the pharmacist when preparing quantities in Imperial weights and measures. The formula give only the proportions of the constituents and quantities to be used in the process of manufacture; for the method the pharmacist is referred to the B.P. 1932. It should be noted that the quantities given here in the Imperial system are not the equivalent of the individual quantities given in the B.P. in the metric system; therefore, whichever formula is used the quantities specified in that particular formula must be adhered to throughout.

Liquids should be measured in all cases unless the contrary is specifically indicated. It should be noted that the Imperial system is standardised at a temperature 16-7° (62°F.), at which temperature 1 mil of water weighs somewhat less than 1 gramme, therefore, in making percentage w/v solutions with Imperial weights and measures to correspond with the percentage w/v preparations of the B.P. it is necessary to take 438.47 gr. (approximately 438½ gr.) as equal to 1 oz. In the following formulae this has been the basis of calculation, but as it often leads to inconvenient fractions the figures have been rounded off for the sake of practical convenience. Where inconvenient fractions occur, it will usually be found that the nearest half grain or minim, up or down, can be reckoned.

Abbreviations: — gr. = grain; m. = minim; oz. = ounce; fl. oz. = fluid ounce; p.c. = per cent; q.s.=in sufficient quantity; w/v=weight in volume.

Acetum Scillae.— VINEGAR OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Dilute Acetic Acid ……………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Acidum Aceticum Dilutum.— DILUTE ACETIC ACID.
Acetic Acid, by weight …………….. 3 oz. 297 gr.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.

Adeps Benzoinatus.— BENZOINATED LARD.
Lard …………………………… 20 oz.
Benzoin, coarsely powdered ………… 263 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Adeps Lanae Hydrosus.—HYDROUS WOOL FAT. SYN. LANOLIN.
Wool Fat ………………………. 14 oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED DILL WATER.
Oil of Dill ……………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water ………………… -to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Anethi Destillata.— DISTILLED DILL WATER.
Dill …………………………… 2 oz.
Water………………………….. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Camphorae.— CAMPHOR WATER.
Camphor ………………………. 8 ¾ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 19 .2 m.
Distilled Water ………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED CINNAMON WATER,.
Oil of Cinnamon …………………. 192 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water………………… .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Cinnamomi Destillata.— DISTILLED CINNAMON WATER.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 2 oz.
Water. …………………………. 40 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.. 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Concentrata.— CONCENTRATED PEPPERMINT WATER. .
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 192m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 12 fl. oz.
Distilled Water…………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Aqua Menthae Piperitae Destillata.— DISTILLED PEPPERMINT WATER.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 9.60 m.
Water ………………………….. 30 fl. oz.
Distil 20 fl. oz. in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

Confectio Sennae.—CONFECTION OF SENNA.
Senna Leaf, in fine powder …………. 5 oz.
Coriander, in fine powder …………… 2 oz.
Figs of commerce ……………..8 oz.
Tamarind ………………………. 6 oz.
Cassia …………………………. 6 oz.
Prunes of commerce ……… 4 oz.
Extract of Liquorice …………. ¾ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 20 oz.
Distilled Water…………………..q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; boiling the figs, Tamarind, and prunes in 17½ fl. oz. of distilled water, and making the final product weigh not less than 50 oz. and not more than 55 oz.

Elixir Cascarae Sagradae.— ELIXIR OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder……. 20 oz.
Liquorice, unpeeled, in coarse powder 2½ oz.
Light Magnesium Oxide……………. 3 oz.
Soluble Saccharin ………………… 8¾ gr.
Oil of Coriander………………….. 1½ m.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 2 m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 120 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 6 fl. oz.
Distilled Water……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; moistening the Cascara Sagrada, Liquorice and Light Magnesium Oxide with 25 fl. oz. of boiling Distilled Water, evaporating the percolate to 13 fl. oz., dissolving the Soluble Saccharin in 115 m. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Emplastrum Cantharidini.—PLASTER OF CANTHARIDIN.
SYN. CANTHARIDIN PLASTER; BLISTERING PLASTER.
Cantharidin ……………………… 17½ gr.
Acetone ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Castor Oil, by weight ………….. 4 oz.
Yellow Beeswax ……………… 8 oz.
Wool Fat ………………………. 7 oz. 421 gr.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Cascarae Sagradae Liquidum.— LIQUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA. 
SYN. FLUID EXTRACT OF CASCARA SAGRADA.
Cascara Sagrada, in coarse powder ……. 20 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; evaporating the percolate to 12 fl. oz., adding the Alcohol previously mixed with 3 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and making the final volume up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water if necessary.

Extractum Cinchonae Liquidum.—LIQUID EXTRACT OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 10 oz. 9 ¾ gr.
Hydrochloric Acid ……………….. 288 m.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Extract of Cinchona with the Alcohol and 5 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Extractum Colocynthidis Compositum.— COMPOUND EXTRACT OF COLOCYNTH.
Colocynth, crushed ……………….. 5 oz. 175 gr.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 11 oz. 87½ gr.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …….. 3 oz. 307 gr.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 2 oz. 350¾ gr.
Cardamom, in fine powder …………. 394 gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 140 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Extractum Malti cum Oleo Morrhuae.— EXTRACT OF MALT WITH COD LIVER OIL.
Extract of Malt ………………….. 18 oz.
Cod-Liver Oil, by weight……………. 2 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Aurantii Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
|Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 27 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P.,1932; macerating the Orange Peel with 20 fl. oz. of the Alcohol 25 p.c., and again with 7 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Aurantii Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF ORANGE PEEL.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight…….. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Buchu Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the direction given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Buchu with Alcohol, 25 p.c., collecting and reserving 15 fl. oz., evaporating the succeeding 20 fl. oz., dissolving it in the reserved portion and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Buchu Recens. — FRESH INFUSION OF BUCHU.
Buchu, freshly broken …………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Calumbae Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 8 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Calumba in 22 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time in 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, then adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Calumbae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, cut small ……………….. 1 oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Caryophylli Concentratum.—CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised. ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 22 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Cloves with 12 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and again with 10 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c.

Infusum Caryophylli Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF CLOVES.
Cloves, bruised…………………… ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Digitalis Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF DIGITALIS. SYN. INFUSUM DIGITALIS; INFUSION OF DIGITALIS.
Powdered Digitalis, equivalent to … 43¾ gr. of International Standard Digitalis Powder. Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Concentratum.
CONCENTRATED COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… 2 oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. 24 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Gentian, Orange, and Lemon Peels with 20 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 25 p.c., and a second time with 4 fl. oz.

Infusum Gentianae Compositum Recens.— FRESH COMPOUND INFUSION OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, thinly sliced ……………… ¼ oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, cut small …… ¼ oz.
Lemon Peel, cut small …………….. ½ oz.
Distilled Water, boiling by weight ……. 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Quassiae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 1 oz. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Distilled Water, cold ……………. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Quassia with 13 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, again with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, and a third time with 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water; evaporating the products of the second and third macerations to 5 fl. oz., adding it to the product of the first maceration, adding the Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Infusum Quassiae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 87½ gr.
Distilled Water, cold ……………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Senegae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 8 oz.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ……….. q.s.
Alcohol, 25 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senega with Alcohol, 25 p.c., reserving the first 15 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, then making faintly alkaline by addition of the Ammonia and finally adding Alcohol, 25 p.c., to make 20 fl. oz.

Infusum Senegae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENEGA.
Senega, in coarse powder …………… 1 oz.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Infusum Sennae Concentratum.— CONCENTRATED INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit, lightly crushed ………… 16 oz.
Strong Tincture of Ginger ……… 1 fl. oz. 288 m.
Alcohol, 20 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; percolating the Senna Fruit with Alcohol, 20 p.c., reserving the first 14 fl. oz., continuing the percolation until a further 20 fl. oz. has been collected; evaporating the second percolate, adding it to the reserved portion, adding the strong Tincture of Ginger and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 20 p.c.

Infusum Sennae Recens.— FRESH INFUSION OF SENNA.
Senna Fruit …………………….. 2 oz.
Ginger, sliced …………………… 43¾ gr.
Distilled Water, boiling, by weight …… 20 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Injectio Sodii Chloridi et Acaciae.— INJECTION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE AND ACACIA.
Sodium Chloride …………………. 79 gr.
Acacia, in large complete tears free from dust … 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Distilled Water. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Acacia and Sodium Chloride in 19 fl. oz. of Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Linimentum Aconiti.— LINIMENT OF ACONITE.
Aconite, in moderately coarse powder…10 oz. 9¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 263 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; exhausting the Aconite by percolation, reserving the first 15 fl. oz. of percolate, evaporating the remainder, adding it to the reserved portion, dissolving the Camphor in the mixture and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Camphorae.— LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR. SYN. CAMPHORATED OIL.
Camphor ………………… 1 oz.
Olive Oil, by weight ………………. 4 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Camphorae Ammoniatum.— AMMONIATED LINIMENT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 2 oz. 221 gr.
Oil of Lavender ………………….. 48 m.
Strong Solution of Ammonia ……….. 5 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Linimentum Saponis.— LINIMENT OF SOAP.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 264 gr.
Camphor ………………………. 350¾ gr.
Oil of Rosemary ……………… 144 m.
Distilled Water. …………………. 3 fl. oz. ‘192 m. ,
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Soap, Camphor and Oil of Rosemary in 12 fl, oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., adding the Distilled Water and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Linimentum Terebinthinae.—LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE.
Soft Soap ………………………. 1 oz. 220J gr.
Camphor ………………………. 438J gr.
Oil of Turpentine ………………… 13 fl. oz.
Distilled Water.. ………………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; first mixing the Soft Soap with 2 fl. oz. of Distilled Water.

Linimentum Terebinthinae Aceticum.— ACETIC LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE. 
SYN. LINIMENT OF TURPENTINE AND ACETIC ACID.
Glacial Acetic Acid ……………….. 2 fl. oz. 96 m.
Liniment of Camphor …………….. 8 fl. oz. 432 m.
Oil of Turpentine………………. . to 20 fl. 6z.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mistura Sennae Composita.— COMPOUND MIXTURE OF SENNA. SYN. BLACK DRAUGHT.
Magnesium Sulphate………………. 5 oz. 5 gr.
Liquid Extract of Liquorice ………… 1 fl. oz.
Compound Tincture of Cardamom. …. 2 fl. oz.
Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia ………… 1 fl. oz.
Fresh Infusion of Senna …………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Magnesium Sulphate in 10 fl. oz. of the Fresh Infusion of Senna, and after adding the mixed Liquid Extract of Liquorice, Compound Tincture of Cardamom and Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, making up to 20 fl. oz. with Fresh Infusion of Senna.

Mucilago Acaciae.— MUCILAGE OF ACACIA. SYN. MUCILAGE OF GUM ACACIA.
Acacia …………………………. 8 oz.
Chloroform Water ……………….. 12 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Mucilago Tragacanthae.— MUCILAGE OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 109½ gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 240 m.
Chloroform Water …………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel.— OXYMEL.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 3 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Oxymel Scillae.— OXYMEL OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 1 oz.
Acetic Acid …………………….. 1 fl. oz. 384 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 5 fl. oz.
Purified Honey ………………….. q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Squill in the Acetic Acid and Distilled Water, and to
every three volumes of the resulting preparation adding seven volumes of Purified Honey.

Pilula Aloes.— PILL OF ALOES. SYN. ALOES PILL.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……….. 1 oz.
Oil of Caraway ………………….. 50 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 151 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Aloes et Asafoetidae. — PILL OF ALOES AND ASAFETIDA.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 1½ oz.
Asafetida ………………………. 1½ oz.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ……… 1 ½ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… ½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami.— PILL OF COLOCYNTH AND HYOSCYAMUS.
Colocynth, in fine powder ………….. 1¼ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2½ oz.
Scammony Resin, in fine powder …. 2½ oz.
Curd Soap, in fine powder …………. 306¼ gr.
Oil of Cloves ……………………. 192 m.
Dry Extract of Hyoscyamus ……. 1¼ oz.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 1 oz. 175 gr. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pilula Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND PILL OF RHUBARB. SYN. COMPOUND RHUBARB PILL.
Rhubarb, in fine powder……………. 2½ oz.
Aloes, in fine powder ……………… 2 oz.
Myrrh …………………………. 1 oz. 175 gr.
Hard Soap, in fine powder ………….1 oz. 175 gr.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 96 m.
Syrup of Liquid Glucose …………… 2½ oz. or q.s.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus.—AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK.
Chalk, finely powdered ……………. 6¼ oz.
Cinnamon, finely powdered …………. 2½ oz.
Nutmeg, finely powdered ………….. 2 oz.
Clove, finely powdered …………….. 1 oz.
Cardamom, finely powdered ………… ¾ oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 12½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus cum Opio.— AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK WITH OPIUM.
Aromatic Powder of Chalk …………. 9¾ oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… ¼ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Glycyrrhizae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF LIQUORICE.
Senna Leaf, finely powdered ………… 2 oz.
Liquorice, peeled, finely powdered…….. 2 oz.
Fennel, finely powdered ……………. 1 oz.
Sublimed Sulphur ……………….. 1 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 6½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Ipecacuanhae et Opii.— POWDER OF IPECACUANHA AND OPIUM. SYN. PULVIS OPII ET IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS I.A.; PULVIS IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS; COMPOUND POWDER OF IPECACUANHA; DOVER’S POWDER.
Powdered Ipecacuanha …………….. 1 oz.
Powdered Opium ………………… 1 oz.
Lactose, finely powdered ………….. 8 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Jalapae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF JALAP.
Powdered Jalap…………………… 3 oz.
Potassium Acid Tartrate, finely powdered. 6 oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Rhei Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF RHUBARB. SYN. GREGORY’S POWDER.
Rhubarb, finely powdered ………….. 2½oz.
Heavy Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Light Magnesium Carbonate ……….. 3¼ oz.
Ginger, finely powdered …………… 1 oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Pulvis Tragacanthae Compositus.— COMPOUND POWDER OF TRAGACANTH.
Tragacanth, finely powdered ………… 1½ oz.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Starch, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 4½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Cajuputi.— SPIRIT OF CAJUPUT.
Oil of Cajuput …………………… 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Camphorae.— SPIRIT OF CAMPHOR.
Camphor ………………………. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………..to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Spiritus Menthae Piperatae.—SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT. SYN. ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.
Oil of Peppermint ………………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus.— SYRUP.
Sucrose …………….. 13 oz. 148¾ gr. or 5 pounds
Distilled Water, by weight to 20 oz. or to 7½ pounds.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Aurantii.—SYRUP OF ORANGE.
Tincture of Orange ……………….. 2½ fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

 

Syrupus Limonis.— SYRUP OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 1 oz. 88½ gr.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. q.s.
Citric Acid ……………………… 210½ gr.
Syrup ………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Lemon Peel in 1 fl. oz. 192 m. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., pressing, filtering, and making up the filtrate to 2 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c., as directed; dissolving the Citric Acid in the liquid and adding Syrup to produce 20 fl. oz.

Syrupus Pruni Serotinae.—SYRUP OF WILD CHERRY. SYN. SYRUPUS PRUNI VIRGINIANAE; SYRUP OF VIRGINIAN PRUNE.
Wild Cherry Bark, in moderately coarse powder … 3 oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Glycerin ………………………. 1 fl. oz.
Distilled Water …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Glycerin with 4 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, moistening the Wild Cherry Bark with 2 fl. oz. of the mixture, percolating as directed onto the Sucrose so as to obtain 20 fl. oz. of finished Syrup of Wild Cherry.

Syrupus Scillae.— SYRUP OF SQUILL.
Vinegar of Squill ………….. 9 fl. oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 16 oz.
Distilled Water ………………….to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Syrupus Sennae.— SYRUP OF SENNA.
Liquid Extract of Senna … 5 fl. oz.
Oil of Coriander………………..14½ m.
Sucrose ………………………… 14 oz.
Distilled Water…………….to 20 fl, oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Oil of Coriander with the Liquid Extract of Senna, adding 6 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, making up the filtrate to 11 fl. oz. with Distilled Water, and after dissolving the Sucrose making up to 20 fl. oz. with Distilled Water.

Syrupus Tolutanus.— SYRUP OF TOLU. SYN. SYRUP OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½ oz.
Sucrose ………………………… 13½ oz.
Distilled Water………………… to 20 oz. by weight.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; adding 8 fl. oz. of Distilled Water to the Balsam of Tolu, boiling and adjusting the weight as directed to 71 oz., filtering and dissolving the Sucrose in the filtrate, finally adding Distilled Water to produce 20 oz. by weight.

Syrupus Zingiberis.— SYRUP OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …… 1 fl. oz.
Syrup………………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Asafoetidae.— TINCTURE OF ASAFETIDA.
Asafetida, bruised ………………… 4 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Asafetida with 15 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Aurantii.— TINCTURE OF ORANGE.
Fresh Bitter-Orange Peel, in thin slices … 5 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Benzoini Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BENZOIN. SYN. FRIAR’S BALSAM.
Benzoin, crushed …………………2 oz.
Storax …………………………. 1½ oz.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. ½oz.
Aloes ………………………….. 175 gr.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………..to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Benzoin, Storax, Balsam of Tolu, and Aloes, with 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c.

Tinctura Calumbae.— TINCTURE OF CALUMBA.
Calumba, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tincturi Capsici.— TINCTURE OF CAPSICUM.
Capsicum, in moderately coarse powder . . 1 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cardamom! Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CARDAMOM.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder. . 122¾ gr.
Caraway, in moderately coarse powder. .. . 122¾ gr.
Cinnamon, in moderately coarse powder . . 245½ gr.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 61½ gr.
Glycerin ……………………….. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; producing 18 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Catechu.— TINCTURE OF CATECHU.
Catechu, crushed ………………… 4 oz.
Cinnamon, bruised ……………….. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932: by the maceration process.

Tinctura Cinchonas.— TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Cinchonas Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CINCHONA.
Extract of Cinchona ………………. 1 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. 1 oz.
Serpentary, in moderately fine powder. …. 4 oz.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . .26 gr.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Bitter-Orange Peel, Serpentary, and Cochineal with 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 70 p.c., dissolving the Extract of Cinchona in the resulting liquid, and finally adding Alcohol, 70 p.c., to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Cocci.— TINCTURE OF COCHINEAL.
Cochineal, in moderately coarse powder . . 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Digitalis.— TINCTURE OF DIGITALIS.
Method 2. Preparation from Powdered Digitalis (Digitalis Pulverata). Powdered Digitalis, a quantity containing the equivalent of 438 – 47 grains of the international standard digitalis powder.
Alcohol, 70 p.c. ……………….. .to 10 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Gentianae Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF GENTIAN.
Gentian, cut small and bruised……….. 2 oz.
Dried Bitter-Orange Peel, bruised ……. ¾ oz.
Cardamom, bruised ………………. ¼ oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Ipecacuanhae.— TINCTURE OF IPECACUANHA.
Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha ………. 1 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 4 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; mixing the Alcohol, 90 p.c., with the Glycerin and 10 fl. oz. of Distilled Water, adding the Liquid Extract of Ipecacuanha and sufficient Distilled Water to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Krameriae.— TINCTURE OF KRAMERIA.
Krameria, in moderately coarse powder . . 4 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Limonis.— TINCTURE OF LEMON.
Lemon Peel, in thin slices ………….. 5 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c…………………… 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Lobeliae Aetherea.— ETHEREAL TINCTURE OF LOBELIA.
Lobelia, in moderately coarse powder …. 4 oz.
Spirit of Ether …………………. to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; collecting 15 fl. oz. of percolate, pressing the marc and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Spirit of Ether.

Tinctura Myrrh.— TINCTURE OF MYRRH.
Myrrh, crushed ………………….. 4 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; macerating the Myrrh in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 90 p.c., as directed.

Tinctura Nucis Vomicae.— TINCTURE OF NUX VOMICA.
Liquid Extract of Nux Vomica …1 fl. oz. 320½ m.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ………………….. 10 fl. oz.
Distilled Water. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Opii Camphorata.— CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM. SYN. TINCTURA OPII BENZOICA I.A.; TINCTURE CAMPHORAE COMPOSITA: COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CAMPHOR: PAREGORIC.
Tincture of Opium ……………….. 1 fl. oz.
Benzoic Acid ……………………. 43¾ gr.
Camphor ………………………. 26⅓ gr.
Oil of Anise …………………….. 28¾ m.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Benzoic Acid, Camphor, and Oil of Anise, in 18 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 60 p.c., adding the Tincture of Opium and making up to 20 fl. oz. with Alcohol, 60 p.c.

Tinctura Quassiae.— TINCTURE OF QUASSIA.
Quassia, rasped ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Quillaiae.— TINCTURE OF QUILLAIA.
Quillaiae, in moderately coarse powder …. 1 oz.
Alcohol, 45 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Rhei Composita.— COMPOUND TINCTURE OF RHUBARB.
Rhubarb, in moderately coarse powder … 2 oz.
Cardamom, in moderately coarse powder . ½ oz.
Coriander, in moderately coarse powder .. ½ oz.
Glycerin ……………………….. 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………… to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; preparing 17 fl. oz. of tincture by the percolation process, adding the Glycerin and sufficient Alcohol, 60 p.c. to produce 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Scillae.— TINCTURE OF SQUILL.
Squill, bruised …………………… 2 oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.
Tinctura Senega.— TINCTURE OF SENEGA.
Liquid Extract of Senega …………… 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ……………….. . to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Tinctura Tolutana.— TINCTURE OF TOLU. SYN. TINCTURE OF BALSAM OF TOLU.
Balsam of Tolu ………………….. 2 oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. ……………….. .to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; dissolving the Balsam of Tolu in 16 fl. oz. of Alcohol, 90 p.c., and finally adding sufficient Alcohol, 90 p.c. to make 20 fl. oz.

Tinctura Valerianae Ammoniata.— AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN.
Valerian, in moderately coarse powder…..4 oz.
Oil of Nutmeg …………………… 28¾ m.
Oil of Lemon ……………………. 19¼ m.
Dilute Solution of Ammonia ………… 2 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 60 p.c. ………………….. 18 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the maceration process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Fortis.— STRONG TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. ESSENCE OF GINGER.
Ginger, in moderately coarse powder …. 10 oz.
Alcohol 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932; by the percolation process.

Tinctura Zingiberis Mitis.— WEAK TINCTURE OF GINGER.
SYN. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS; TINCTURE OF GINGER.
Strong Tincture of Ginger …………. 4 fl. oz.
Alcohol, 90 p.c. …………………to 20 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932

TROCHISCI.  Lozenge Basis of the General Process.
Sucrose, finely powdered …………… 35 oz. 120 gr.
Acacia, finely powdered ……………. 2 oz. 205 gr.
Tincture of Tolu …………………. 338 m.
Distilled Water. ………………….. q.s.
To be prepared and used in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932, in the preparation of 1,000 lozenges.

Trochiscus Krameriae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA. 
SYN. KRAMERIA LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1000 Lozenges.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Trochiscus Krameriae et Cocainae.— LOZENGE OF KRAMERIA AND COCAINE. SYN. KRAMERIA AND COCAINE LOZENGE.
Dry Extract of Krameria, finely powdered 2 oz. 51 gr.
Cocaine Hydrochloride ……………. 46¼ gr.
Lozenge Basis of the General Process for 1,000 Lozenges. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Aquosum.— HYDROUS OINTMENT.
Distilled Water. ………………….. 2 fl. oz. 192 m.
Borax …………………………. 43¾ gr.
White Beeswax ………………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
White Soft Paraffin ……………….. 1 oz. 110 gr.
Olive Oil ………………………. 5 fl. oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Capsici.— OINTMENT OF CAPSICUM. SYN. CAPSICUM OINTMENT.
Capsicum, bruised ……………….. 2½ oz.
Lard …………………………… 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin …………………… 1 oz.
Yellow Soft Paraffin ………………. 7½ oz.
Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

Unguentum Simplex.— SIMPLE OINTMENT,
Wool Fat ………………………. 1 oz.
Hard Paraffin ……………………. 2 oz.
White Soft Paraffin or Yellow Soft Paraffin 17 oz. Prepare in accordance with the directions given in the B.P., 1932.

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